CELL DIVISION

CHAPTER 5

5.1 5.2 5.3

Understanding the Mitosis Understanding the Meiosis The movement of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis

5.1 MITOSIS
1. Cell division helps the body to produce new cells in order to replace cells that are worn out and damaged. 2. The continuous production of new cell for the growth through a process called mitosis. 3. The new cell allow the replacement of dead cells, the body to repair damaged tissue, to grow and reproduction in unicellular organisms. 4. Mitosis involves nuclear division to produce two daughter cell, each containing the same number and genetically identical chromosomes as the parent cell.

4. Mitosis involves nuclear division to produce two daughter cell, each containing the same number and genetically identical chromosomes as the parent cell. 5. Mitosis occurs in all somatic cells ( all body cell except the reproductive cell).

Nuclear division

CELL DIVISION
Cytoplasmic division

What is CHROMOSOME??
The nucleus of a cell contain chromosomes. Each chromosome consist of a long DNA molecule which carries genes. Genes determine the individual characteristics of an organism.

 The number of chromosomes(chromosomal number) for certain sp is constant and varied from one sp to other sp. Example , a human cell has 46 chromosomes. Somatic cell have 2 sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. = means the cell contain diploid number of chromosomes (2n)

Significant of Mitosis 1. The number of chromosomes present in each cell is constant for the species. Example , a human cell has 46 chromosomes.
2. Somatic cell contain two set of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent. These cells contain a diploid number of chromosomes (2n). For human (2n)=46.

3. Chromosomes exist in pairs. 4. The chromosomes in each pair have the same structural features and are referred to as the homologous chromosomes. Each member of the pair is called a homologue. 5. One of the chromosome is paternal origin, the other is maternal origin. 6. Gametes contain only one set of unpaired chromosomes or a haploid number of chromosomes. (n) 7. Mitosis ensure that the new cell are genetically identical to the chromosomal number of the species.

The cell cycle

The cell cycle It is the period that each cell undergoes from the time the cell is produced until the cell completes cell division. The cell cycle can be divide into the following phase: i. G1 phase ii. S phase Interphase iii. G2 phase iv. M phase (Mitosis cell division)

Interphase
1. Interphase is the stage for cells to grow larger and prepare for cell division. 2. Interphase is divided into three stages: a) G1 phase (gap or growth phase 1) i. The cell growth by producing proteins and new cytoplasmic organelles. ii. The chromosomes appear as thread-like structures called chromatin. b) S phase (DNA synthesis) i. DNA is synthesised at this stage and undergoes the replication process.

ii. Each duplicate DNA contains two identical sister chromatids joined together by centromeres.

c) G2 phase (gap or growth phase 2) i. The cell continues to grow. ii. The cell prepares for cell division.

The Mitotic Cell Division (M phase)

1. 2. i. ii. 3. 4. a) b) c) d) Cell division takes place in the M phase. Consists of two parts: Mitosis Cytokinesis The nucleus divides during mitosis followed by division of cytoplasm called cytokinesis. Mitosis is divided into: Prophase Metaphase Anaphase telophase

Prophase
The chromosomes condense, that is the shorten and thicken and finally becomes visible. Each chromosomes consist of sister chromatids attached at a point called the centromere. The spindle fibres begin to form and extend between the centrioles. The nucleolus disappear, the nuclear membrane breaks down/disintegrates. centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the cell. Centrioles are absent in plant cells.

Metaphase Begin when centromeres of all chromosomes are line up on the plate. The spindle fibres are fully formed. All chromosomes are arranged with their centromers along the equator of the spindle. Two sister chromatids are still attached at the centromers.

Anaphase
Anaphase begins with the separation of the centromers. The sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by contraction of the spindle fibres. Once the sister chromatids are separated they are referred to as daughter chromosomes. The two poles of the cell have complete and equivalent set of chromosomes by the end of anaphase.

Telophase
Telophase begins when the two sets of daughter chromosomes have reached the two poles of the cell. The chromosomes appear as thread-like structure (chromatin) and are not visible. Spindle fibres disappear A new nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes The nucleolus reforms

Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the process of cytoplasmic division to form two daughter cells. Cytokinesis usually begins before nuclear division is completed. Cleavage furrow In animal cell, cytokinesis form A groove called a cleavage furrow.

 In plant cell cells, cytokinesis start with the formation of cell plate at the equator of the cell. The vesicles fuse, producing the cell wall. The cell plate extends outwards to the existing cell wall, and separate the two daughter cells.

The Importance of mitosis To replace dead cell. To repair or regenerate damaged cells. To increase the number of cells thus allowing growth and development in living organisms. The basic of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms.

Application of mitosis in cloning

Cloning is the process of producing new individuals from single parent by means of mitosis.

 Artificial cloning in plant ( tissue culture technique.

Cloning in plants
Cloned using tissue culture where they could produse geneticcaly identical cloned.

Technique of tissue culture

1. A piece of tissue, called explant is taken from the parent plant (eg: carrot root or stem tissue, apical meristem of orchid, or cauliflower bud) and cut into small pieces. 2. The pieces of tissue are strerilized with dilute sodium hypochlorite solution to prevent the growth of pathogens such as bacteria and fungus. 3. Then place onto a growth medium (gel containing nutrient and growth hormones-

4. The explants is incubated in a suitable temperature, 30-35 0C , optimum pH level for several weeks. 5. The tissue cell divide by mitosis to produce a mass of loosely arranged and undifferentiated cell called callus. The callus continue to divide and differentiates to form roots and shoots. 6. The shoots are separated and each is placed in nutrient medium with root-stimulating hormones

7. Once roots grow, the plantlets( little plant) are transferred to soil.

 Cloning in animal

Dolly (sheep)
Species Sex Born Died Domestic Sheep, Finn-Dorset Female 5 July 1996 Roslin Institute 14 February 2003 (aged 6) National Museum of Scotland (remains on display) United Kingdom (Great Britain) First cloned sheep First mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell Six lambs (Bonnie; twins Sally and Rosie; triplets Lucy, Darcy and Cotton)

Resting place
Nation from Notable role Known for Offspring

Advantages of cloning
A) produce large numbers and in a short time of genetically identical young plants. B) Cloned plants and animal give better and increase output. Example better and more fruits, milk and meat. C) Cloning prevent endangered sp from extinction.

disadvantages of cloning
a) Clones do not show genetic variation. b) The resistance of clones towards diseases and pests is the same. c) Cloning is carried out under controlled environment. If external environment changes, the clone will be destroyed d) Cloning prevents natural selection.

Uncontrolled mitosis in living things What happen if the cells fail to divide or begin to divide at the wrong time or even divide uncontrolled? Cancer is a genetic disease caused by uncontrollably mitosis due to severe disruption to mechanism that control the cell cycle. A tumor is a lump or growth of tissue made up from abnormal cells.

Two type of tumor a) Benign tumor b) Malignant tumor

SPM 2005, PAPER 2 QUESTION 2

5.2 Meiosis

5.2

Meiosis

1. Process of nuclear division to produce four daughter cells, each containing half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell. 2. The daughter cell recieves one set chromosomes from each pair of homologous chromosomes and is called a haploid cell. 3. Gamates that are produces form meiosis are haploid (n). 4. Parent cell that carries out meiosis is diploid (2n).

5. The genetic materials in the gamates differs from the parent cell and from each other. 6. In animal and human meiosis occurs in a) Testes in males to produce sperms b) Ovaries in females to produce ovum 7. In plant meiosis occurs in a) Anthers of flowers to produce male gamates in pollen b) Ovaries of flowers - to produce egg cells in ovules

The significant of meiosis

a) To allow traits inheritances in offspring. b) To maintain diploid number in each generation. c) To ensure the production of haploid gamates in sexual reproduction . d) To produce genetic variation among offspring.

The process of Meiosis 1. Meiosis involves two nuclei division: a) Meiosis I (the first meiotic division) b) Meiosis II (the second meiotic division)
Meiosis I Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Meiosis II Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

The Stages of Meiosis I Interphase (same like Mitosis)

Prophase I
1. Chromosomes condense become shorter, thicker and visible. 2. Each chromosomes consist two sister chromatids. 3. Homologous chromosomes pair up through a process called synapsis. 4. Each pair of homologous chromosomes consisting of four chromatids is called a bivalent or a tetrad. 5. The non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchanges segments of DNA in a process called crossing over.

6. The points where the chromatids cross over are called Chiasmata. Crossing over results in new combination of genes and is an important sources of variation. 7. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane dissapper. 8. The two pairs of centrioles which spindle fibre radiate move to opposite poles.

Metaphase I
1. the chromosomes are line up side by side as tetrads on the metaphase plate/ homologous chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell. 2. Chromosomes of each pair is attached to the spindle fibre. 3. Centromers does not divide

Anaphase I
The chromosomes of each homologous pair move to opposite poles of the cell. Each chromosomes still consist of two sister chromatids which move as a single unit. The spindle fibre pull the homologous chromosomes apart.

Telophase I
1. The chromosomes fibres disappear arrive at opposite poles of the cell. 2. Spindle fibre disappear 3. Nuclear membrane reforms 4. Nucleolus reappear 5. Cytokinesis occurs to produce two haploid daughter cell because the nucleus contain only one set of chromosomes.

 Meiosis II follows immediately after cytokinesis No Interphase (DNA replication does not occur again and the chromosomes remain in a condense state) Meiosis II results in the separation of sister chromatids

Prophase II 1. The nuclear membrane of the daughter cells disintegrate again. 2. The spindle fibre reform in each daughter cell.

Metaphase II
1. The chromosomes, each made up of sister chromatids, line up at the equator. 2. The sister chromatids of each chromosomes face opposite poles. 3. Each sister chromatid is attached to the spindle fibre at the centromers.

Anaphase II The centromers separate. The chromatids separate and move face opposite of the cells.

Telophase II
1. 2. 3. 4. Nucleoli and Nuclear membrane reform. Spindle fibre break down. Cytokinesis occur and produce four daughter cell. Each with half number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Similarities and Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

mitosis Somatic cell Aspect Place it occur meiosis Reproductive organs

Does not occur

Synapsis of homologous chromosomes

Occurs during prophase I

Does not occur Sister chromatids split and move towards opposite poles

Crossing over between Occur during Prophase I non-sister chromatids Anaphase I- Homologous chromosomes separate and move towards opposite poles II- sister chromatids split and move towards opposite poles

Mitosis

Aspect

Meiosis

One 2 Haploid (n)

Number of division Number of daughter cells Number of chromosomes

two 4 Diploid (2n)

Occur once All daughter cell are genetically same as parent cell

Cytokinesis

Occur twice

Genetic content All daughter cell are of daughter cell genetically different as parent cell

5.3 Appreciating the movement of Chromosomes during Mitosis and Meiosis Mutation A sudden changes in structure, arrangement or number of DNA in the chromosome.

Downs syndrome 1. Has one extra chromosomes at chromosomes 21. 2. Pairs of chromosomes do not separate properly during meiosis which produce an ovum containing 24 chromosomes. 3. Weak body resistances 4. Mental retarded 5. Typical facial 6. Slanting eyes 7. Shorter stature 8. Prone to disease 9. Shorter life.

Turners syndrome 1. Genetic disorder of women caused by the absences of the second sex chromosomes. 2. 22+ XO 3. Lack of ovaries and menstrual cycle 4. Women sterile 5. Lack secondary sexual 6. characteristic 7. Short

Klinefelters syndrome 1. Genetic disorder affecting men 2. Extra X chromosomes so their sex chromosomes are XXY 3. Underdeveloped testes 4. Infertility 5. Breast enlargement

Preventing mutation
Mutation genetic information change. ( can results in cancers) May induced by:

1) ultraviolet radiation in sunlight

2) Radioactive rays
Examples, beta and gamma rays produced by radioactive substances such as plutonium and uranium.

3) Carcinogenic substances.
Cancer-causing chemicals. Eg ; sodium nitrite (use for food preservative) afflatoxin (improperly stored cereals and nuts, overgrown with fungi)