SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Description of soil is a statement describing the physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at using visual examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions, geological history, etc.

Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar characteristics and potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering purposes should be based mainly on mechanical properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.

Size range of grains

Aids to size identification
The range of particle sizes encountered in soil is very large: from boulders with a controlling dimension of over 200mm down to clay particles less than 0.002mm (2mm). Some clays contain particles less than 1 mm in size which behave as colloids, i.e. do not settle in water due solely to gravity.

In theBritish Soil Classification System, soils are classified into named Basic Soil Type groups according to size, and the groups further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-groups: Very coarse soils

BOULDERS
COBBLES G GRAVEL coarse medium

> 200 mm
60 - 200 mm 20 - 60 mm 6 - 20 mm

Coarse soils S SAND

fine
coarse medium fine

2 - 6 mm
0.6 - 2.0 mm 0.2 - 0.6 mm 0.06 - 0.2 mm

Fine soils

M SILT

coarse
medium fine C CLAY

0.02 - 0.06 mm
0.006 - 0.02 mm 0.002 - 0.006 mm < 0.002 mm

Aids to size identification

Soils possess a number of physical characteristics which can be used as aids to size identification in the field. A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the following: SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye. SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands and boots. CLAY particles are greasy and sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have to be scraped or washed off hands and boots.

Shape of grains
The majority of soils may be regarded as either SANDS or CLAYS:
SANDS include gravelly sands and gravel-sands. Sand grains are generally broken rock particles that have been formed by physical weathering, or they are the resistant components of rocks broken down by chemical weathering. Sand grains generally have a rotund shape. CLAYS include silty clays and clay-silts; there are few pure silts (e.g. areas formed by windblown Less). Clay grains are usually the product of chemical weathering or rocks and soils. Clay particles have a flaky shape.

There are major differences in engineering behaviour between SANDS and CLAYS (e.g. in permeability, compressibility, shrinking/swelling potential). The shape and size of the soil grains has an important bearing on these differences.

Shape characteristics of SAND grains

SAND and larger-sized grains are rotund. Coarse soil grains (silt-sized, sand-sized and larger) have different shape characteristics and surface roughness depending on the amount of wear during transportation (by water, wind or ice), or after crushing in manufactured aggregates. They have a relatively low specific surface (surface area). Rounded: Water- or air-worn; transported sediments Irregular: Irregular shape with round edges; glacial sediments (sometimes sub-divided into 'sub-rounded' and 'sub-angular') Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges; residual soils, grits Flaky: Thickness small compared to length/breadth; clays Elongated: Length larger than breadth/thickness; scree, broken flagstone Flaky & Elongated: Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken schists and slates

Shape characteristics of CLAY grains

CLAY particles are flaky. Their thickness is very small relative to their length & breadth, in some cases as thin as 1/100th of the length. They therefore have high to very high specific surface values. These surfaces carry a small negative electrical charge, that will attract the positive end of water molecules. This charge depends on the soil mineral and may be affected by an electrolite in the pore water. This causes some additional forces between the soil grains which are proportional to the specific surface. Thus a lot of water may be held asadsorbed water within a clay mass.

Specific surface is the ratio of surface area per unit wight. Surface forces are proportional to surface area (i.e. to d). Self-weight forces are proportional to volume (i.e. to d). Therefore Surface force 1 self weight forces d Also, specific surface = area 1 * volume d

Hence, specific surface is a measure of the relative contributions of surface forces and self-weight forces. The specific surface of a 1mm cube of quartz ( = 2.65gm/cm) is 0.00023 m/N SAND grains (size 2.0 - 0.06mm) are close to cubes or spheres in shape, and have specific surfaces near the minimum value. CLAY particles are flaky and have much greater specific surface values.

BS system for description and classification

BS description system BS 5930 Site Investigation recommends the terminology and a system for describing and classifying soils for engineering purposes. Without the use of a satisfactory system of description and classification, the description of materials found on a site would be meaningless or even misleading, and it would be difficult to apply experience to future projects.

BS description system
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A recommended protocol for describing a soil deposit uses nine characteristics; these should be written in the following order: compactness e.g. loose, dense, slightly cemented bedding structure e.g. homogeneous or stratified; dip, orientation discontinuities spacing of beds, joints, fissures weathered state degree of weathering colour main body colour, mottling grading or consistency e.g. well-graded, poorly-graded; soft, firm, hard

7.
8. 9.

SOIL NAME
Soil class

e.g. GRAVEL, SAND, SILT, CLAY; (upper case letters) plus silty-, gravelly-, withfines, etc. as appropriate (BSCS) designation (for roads & airfields) e.g. SW = well-graded sand

geological stratigraphic name

(when known) e.g. London clay Not all characteristics are necessarily applicable in every case.

Example: (i) Loose homogeneous reddish-yellow poorly-graded medium SAND (SP), Flood plain alluvium (ii) Dense fissured unweathered greyish-blue firm CLAY. Oxford clay.

Definitions of terms used in description A table is given in BS 5930 Site Investigation setting out a recommended field identification and description system. The following are some of the terms listed for use in soil descriptions:
Particle shape angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded, flat, elongate Compactness loose, medium dense, dense (use a pick or driven peg, or density index) Bedding structure homogeneous, stratified, inter-stratified Bedding spacing massive(>2m), thickly bedded (2000-600 mm), medium bedded (600-200 mm), thinly bedded (200-60 mm), very thinly bedded (60-20 mm), laminated (20-6 mm), thinly laminated (<6 mm).

Discontinuities i.e. spacing of joints and fissure: very widely spaced(>2m), widely spaced (2000-600 mm), medium spaced (600-200 mm), closely spaced (200-60 mm), very closely spaced (60-20 mm), extremely closely spaced (<20 mm). Colours red, pink, yellow, brown, olive, green, blue, white, grey, black Consistency very soft (exudes between fingers), soft (easily mouldable), firm (strong finger pressure required), stiff (can be indented with fingers, but not moulded) very stiff (indented by sharp object), hard (difficult to indent). Grading well graded (wide size range), uniform (very narrow size range), poorly graded (narrow or uneven size range). Composite soils In SANDS and GRAVELS: slightly clayey or silty (<5%), clayey or silty (5-15%), very clayey or silty(>15%) In CLAYS and SILTS: sandy or gravelly (35-65%)

a.

a. b. c. d. e. f.

Angular Rounded irregular Flaky Elongated Flaki&elongated

f.

British Soil Classification System

The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation. Its essential structure is as follows:

Soil group Coarse soils G

Symbol Fines % GW GPu/GPg 0-5 0-5 5 - 15 5 - 15 15 - 35 15 - 35 0-5 0-5 5 - 15 5 - 15 15 - 35 15 - 35

Recommended name

Well-graded GRAVEL Uniform/poorly-graded GRAVEL Well-graded silty/clayey GRAVEL Poorly graded silty/clayey GRAVEL Very silty GRAVEL [plasticity sub-group...] Very clayey GRAVEL [..symbols as below] Well-graded SAND Uniform/poorly-graded SAND Well-graded silty/clayey SAND Poorly graded silty/clayey SAND Very silty SAND [plasticity sub-group...] Very clayey SAND [..symbols as below]

GRAVEL

G-F

GWM/GWC GPM/GPC

GF

GML, GMI... GCL, GCI...

SW SPu/SPg

SAND

S-F

SWM/SWC GPM/GPC

SF

SML, SMI... SCL, SCI...

Fine soils

>35% fines MG

Liquid limit% Gravelly SILT Sandy SILT [Plasticity subdivisions as for CLAY] Gravelly CLAY

SILT

MS ML, MI... CG

CS
CL CLAY C CI CH CV CE <35 35 - 50 50 - 70 70 - 90 >90

Sandy CLAY
CLAY of low plasticity CLAY of intermediate plasticity CLAY of high plasticity CLAY of very high plasticity CLAY of extremely high plasticity

Organic soils
Peat

O
Pt

[Add letter 'O' to group symbol]

[Soil predominantly fibrous and organic]

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

The Unified Soil Classification System (or USCS) is a soil classification system used in engineering and geology disciplines to describe the texture and grain size of a soil. The classification system can be applied to most unconsolidated materials, and is represented by a two-letter symbol. Each letter is described below (with the exception of Pt): First and/or second letters Second letters
Letter G S M C O Definition gravel sand silt clay organic

Letter P

Definition poorly graded (uniform particle sizes) well graded (diversified particle sizes) high plasticity low plasticity

W H L

Major divisions gravel > 50% of coarse fraction retained on No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve clean gravel <5% smaller than #200 Sieve gravel with >12% fines clean sand sand with >12% fines inorganic organic Fine grained soils more than 50% passes No.200 sieve silt and clay liquid limit 50

Group symbol GW GP GM GC SW SP SM SC ML CL OL

Group name

well graded gravel, fine to coarse gravel

poorly graded gravel silty gravel clayey gravel well graded sand, fine to coarse sand poorly-graded sand silty sand clayey sand silt clay organic silt, organic clay silt of high plasticity, elastic silt clay of high plasticity, fat clay organic clay, organic silt

Coarse grained soils more than 50% retained on No.200 (0.075 mm) sieve

sand 50% of coarse fraction passes No.4 sieve

silt and clay liquid limit < 50

MH
inorganic CH organic OH

Highly organic soils

Pt

peat

Wet sieve complete soil sample through 0.075 mm sieve size

Fine Fraction
< 50% retained

Coarse Fraction
>50% retained

FINE GRAINED SOIL

[Clay or Silt, Organic or non-organic]

COARSE GRAINED SOIL

[Sand or Gravel]

Atterberg Limits
Above A line Below A line

Sieve coarse fraction through 2.36 mm sieve size

Clay Liquid Limit

<30%
>50%

Silt, Organic Soil Liquid Limit

<50%

>50%
< 50% retained > 50% retained

CL

CI

CH

ML

OL

MH OH

SAND
Fines < 5%

GRAVEL
Fines < 5%

Fines > 12%

Fines > 12%

Examine Soil Grading

Atterberg Examine Soil Grading Limits

SC

Atterberg Limits
GC

SP

SW

SM

GP

GW

GM

Figure 4 Flow Chart for Application of the Unified Soil Classification System

A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or flood-plain alluvium) B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of gravel and sand) C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or estuarine silt) E - a typical silty CLAY (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay)

Sieve analysis example

The results of a dry-sieving test are given below, together with the grading analysis and grading curve. Note carefully how the tabulated results are set out and calculated. The grading curve has been plotted on special semilogarithmic paper; you can also do this analysis using a spreadsheet.
Sieve mesh size (mm) 14.0 10.0 6.3 5.0 3.35 2.0 1.18 0.600 0.425 0.300 0.212 0.150 0.063 Pan TOTAL Mass retained (g) 0 3.5 7.6 7.0 14.3 21.1 56.7 73.4 22.2 26.9 18.4 15.2 17.5 8.5 292.3 Percentage retained Percentage finer (passing) 100.0 98.8 86.2 93.8 88.9 81.7 62.3 37.2 29.6 20.4 14.1 8.9 2.9 0 1.2 2.6 2.4 4.9 7.2 19.4 25.1 7.6 9.2 6.3 5.2 6.0 2.9 100.0

The soil comprises: 18% gravel, 45% coarse sand, 24% medium sand, 10% fine sand, 3% silt, and is classified therefore as: a well-graded gravelly SAND