DIgital Communication

ECE 422L
Pulse Modulation

2013

Elements of Digital Communication System

Elements of Digital Communication System

In Source and Input Transducer:

Analog source: audio video signal

Digital Source: Source alphabet Symbol rate Source alphabet probabilities Probabilistic dependence of symbols in a sequence

Elements of Digital Communication System

Source Encoder
use as few binary digits as possible to represent the signal. This sequence of binary digits is called information sequence. Source Encoding or Data Compression: the process of efficiently converting the output of wither analog or digital source into a sequence of binary digits Codeword a group of bits used to represent symbols Blocksize maximum number of distinct codewords Codeword length number of bits used to represent each codeword Average data rate Effeciency of the encoder

Elements of Digital Communication System

Channel Encoder:
to introduced, in controlled manner, some redundancy in the binary information sequence that can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects of noise and interference encountered in the transmission on the signal through the channel. Parameters: Coding rate that depends upon the number the redundant bit added Coding method used Coding efficiency Error control capabilities Feasibility of the encoder and decoder

Elements of Digital Communication System

Digital Modulator:
The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which in turns convert the sequence into electric signals so that we can transmit them on channel

Parameters:
Transmission bandwidth Probability of symbol Synchronous or asynchronous method of detection Complexity of implementation

Elements of Digital Communication System

Channel:
is the physical medium that is used for transmitting signals from transmitter to receiver.

Digital Demodulator:
processes the channel corrupted transmitted waveform and reduces the waveform to the sequence of numbers that represents estimates of the transmitted data symbols.

Elements of Digital Communication System

Channel Decoder:
attempts to reconstruct the original information sequence from the knowledge of the code used by the channel encoder and the redundancy contained in the received data

Source Decoder
At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source decoder tries to decode the sequence from the knowledge of the encoding algorithm. And which results in the approximate replica of the input at the transmitter end

Merits of Digital Communication

1. Digital signals are very easy to receive. 2. In digital signals, the original signal can be reproduced accurately.

3. digital signals can be cleaned up to restore the quality and amplified by the regenerators.

Merits of Digital Communication 4. The noise may change the shape of the pulses but not the pattern of the pulses. 5. But digital signals can be coded so that only the person, who is intended for, can receive them.

6. digital signals can be stored at the receiving end.

7. The digital signals can be processed

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Data and Signal

Analog data
Takes on continuous values. Ex. Voice or video

Digital data
Takes on discrete values. Ex. Text and integers

Analog Signal
Continuously varying electromagnetic wave representing data carried over a variety of medium

Digital Signal
Sequence of voltage pulses representing data transmitted over a wire medium

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Remember!
Analog or Digital Data Can Be Represented By Either Analog or Digital Signals.
These Signals Can Then Be Propogated (Moved Along a Medium). Optical Fiber Only Propogates Analog Signals

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Data and Signal

Analog Data, Analog Signals radio Digital Data, Analog Signals (modem) broadband & wireless Analog Data, Digital Signals [codec] Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM) [fiber] Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Delta Modulation Digital Data, Digital Signals (baseband) wired LAN, (e.g., Ethernet)

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Data and Signal

Digital data Digital Signal
Easy and simple to implement

Analog data Digital Signal

Allows the use of digital transmission and switching equipment

Digital data Analog Signal

Allows us of the public telephone system Allows use of optical fiber

Analog Data Analog Signal

Easy Telephone system was primarily analog

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Remember!
Short distance transmissions, baseband modulation is usually used. Baseband modulation is often called line coding For long distance and wireless transmissions, bandpass modulation is usually used. Bandpass modulation is also called carrier modulation

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Consist essentially of sampling analog information signals

Then converting those samples into discrete pulses

Transporting the pulses from a source to destination over a physical transmission medium.

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SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of taking samples of the analogue signals at given interval of time. Only samples are being transmitted. If sufficient samples are sent and sampling theorem are met the original signal can be reconstructed at the receiver

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SAMPLING THEOREM
Sampling theorem states that, if the sampling rate in any pulse modulation system exceeds twice the maximum information signal frequency, the original signal can be reconstructed in the receiver with minimum distortion. This is called Nyquist Rate, fs 2fmax fs sampling frequency, fmax maximum freq of the modulating signal

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The process of transmitting signals in the form of pulses by using special techniques. This slides includes:

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse Position Modulation

Pulse Code Modulation

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Analog Pulse Modulation

Pulse Amplitude (PAM)

Digital Pulse Modulation

Pulse Code (PCM) Delta (DM)

Pulse Width (PWM)

Pulse Position (PPM)

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Analog pulse modulation A periodic pulse train is used as the carrier wave Some characteristic feature of each pulse is varied in a continuous manner in accordance with the corresponding sample value of the message signal Analog pulse-modulation systems rely on the sampling process to maintain continuous amplitude representation of the message signal

Digital pulse modulation The message signal is represented in a form that is discrete in both time and amplitude Its transmission in digital form as a sequence of coded pulse Digital pulse-modulation system use not only the sampling process but also the quantization process. Digital modulation makes it possible to exploit the full power of digital signal-processing techniques.

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* amplitude of discrete carrier signal changes in accordance

with the instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal(message signal) keeping width and position of carrier constant *The signal is sampled at regular intervals such that each sample is proportional to the amplitude of the signal at that sampling instant. This technique is called sampling. * For minimum distortion, the sampling rate should be more than twice the signal frequency.

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Analog Signal

AND Gate

PAM Pulse Shaping Network

FM Modulator

PAM - FM

HF Carrier Oscillator Pulses at sampling frequency

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Analog Signal

Amplitude Modulated Pulses

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Types of PAM
There are 2 types of PAM :

1. Natural sampling 2. Flat top sampling

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Natural Sampling

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Flat Top Sampling

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Merits and Demerits of PAM

Merits
Generation and detection is easy.

Demerits
Added noise cannot be removed easily as it has impact on amplitude which carries information. Transmission bandwidth is too large. 28

Pulse Width Modulation

* the amplitude is maintained constant but the duration or length or width of each pulse is varied in accordance with instantaneous value of the analog signal keeping amplitude and position of carrier constant * The negative side of the signal is brought to the positive side by adding a fixed d.c. voltage.

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Pulse Width Modulation

Analog Signal

Width Modulated Pulses

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PWM Waveform

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Merits and Demerits of PWM

Merits
Very good noise immunity. Its possible to separate out signal from noise.

Demerits
Bandwidth requirement is large as compared to PAM. 32

Pulse Position Modulation

* In this type, the sampled waveform has fixed amplitude and width whereas the position of each pulse is varied as per instantaneous value of the analog signal. * PPM signal is further modification of a PWM signal. It has positive thin pulses (zero time or width) corresponding to the starting edge of a PWM pulse and negative thin pulses corresponding to the ending edge of a pulse.

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Pulse Width Modulation

PWM

PPM

* This wave can be further amended by eliminating the whole positive narrow pulses. The remaining pulse is called clipped PPM.

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Pulse Position Modulation

The modulation system in which position of the discrete carrier signal changes in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal(message signal) keeping amplitude and Width of carrier constant is called as PPM.
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PPM Generator

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PPM Waveform

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Merits and Demerits of PPM

Merits
High noise immunity.

Demerit
Generation and detection is complex.

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PAM, PWM and PPM at a glance:

Analog Signal

Amplitude Modulated Pulses

Width Modulated Pulses

Position Modulated Pulses

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lets move on to digital pulse modulation.

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ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION A digital signal is superior to an analog signal because it is more robust to noise and can easily be recovered, corrected and amplified. For this reason, the tendency today is to change an analog signal to digital data. Generally used two techniques are : pulse code modulation and delta modulation
.

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Pulse Code Modulation

It is the type of pulse modulation in which the group of pulses or codes are transmitted which represent binary numbers corresponding to modulating signal voltage. They are a primary building block for advanced communication systems
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Pulse Code Modulation

PCM is the most commonly used technique in digital communications Used in many applications: Telephone systems Digital audio recording CD laser disks voice mail digital video etc.

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Trivia!
PCM was invented by the British engineer Alec Reeves in 1937 in France. It was not until about the middle of 1943 that the Bell Labs people became aware of the use of PCM binary coding as already proposed by Alec Reeves.

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PCM Encoder

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Pulse Code Modulation

PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog signal:

1. Sampling: The process of generating pulses of zero width and of amplitude equal to the instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal. The no. of pulses per second is called sampling rate. Nyquist theorem

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3 DIFFERENT SAMPLING METHODS

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Pulse Code Modulation

2. Quantization:

The process of dividing the maximum value of the analog signal into a fixed no. of levels in order to convert the PAM into a Binary Code. The levels obtained are called quanization levels.

quantizing process will produce errors called quantizing errors or quantizing noise

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Two types of quantization.

(a) midtread (b) midrise

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Illustration of the quantization process

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Nonuniform Quantizing
Voice analog signals are more likely to have amplitude values near zero than at the extreme peak values allowed. For signals with nonuniform amplitude distribution, the granular quantizing noise will be a serious problem if the step size is not reduced for amplitude values near zero and increased for extremely large values. This is called nonuniform quantizing since a variable step size is used.

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Nonuniform Quantizing

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Quantization Error and SNQR

When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error the coded signal is an approximation of the actual amplitude value. The difference between actual and coded value (midpoint) is referred to as the quantization error. Signals with lower amplitude values will suffer more from quantization error as the error range: /2, is fixed for all signal levels.

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Quantization Error and SNQR

Non linear quantization is used to alleviate this problem. Goal is to keep SNQR fixed for all sample values. Two approaches: The quantization levels follow a logarithmic curve. Smaller s at lower amplitudes and largers at higher amplitudes. Companding: The sample values are compressed at the sender into logarithmic zones, and then expanded at the receiver.

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Quantization Error and SNQR

Qe=Resolution/2
SNQR = minimum voltage / quantization noise voltage

SNQR = 10 log (average signal power/average quantization noise power)

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Pulse Code Modulation

PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog signal:

3. Binary encoding:

Note: A digital signal is described by its bit rate whereas analog signal is described by its frequency range.

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Encoding
Encoding is the process of representing the sampled values as a binary number in the range 0 to n. The value of n is chosen as a power of 2, depending on the accuracy required. Increasing n reduces the step size between adjacent Quantization levels and hence reduces the Quantization noise. The down side of this is that the amount of digital data required to represent the analog signal increases.

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PCM Decoder

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PCM Decoder
To recover an analog signal from a digitized signal we follow the following steps:
We use a hold circuit that holds the amplitude value of a pulse till the next pulse arrives. We pass this signal through a low pass filter with a cutoff frequency that is equal to the highest frequency in the pre-sampled signal.

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PCM TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

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PCM Parameter
Dynamic Range Resolution Maximum allowable input amplitude Coding efficiency Ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible magnitude that can be decoded
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PCM Parameter
Dynamic Range, DR
Ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible magnitude that can be decoded DR=Vmax/Vmin = Vmax/Resolution

2n 1 >=DR
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Dynamic Range
Is the ratio of the strongest possible signal that can be transmitted and the weakest discernible signal In a linear PCM system, the maximum dynamic range is found by:

DR = (1.76 + 6.02m) dB

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Companding
Sometimes called compassion used to improve dynamic range
Compression is used on the transmitting end and expanding is used on the receiving end Keep the bit rate and bandwidth low

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A LAW & - LAW

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A LAW & - LAW

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Mu Law

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Speech Companding
The human auditory system is believed to be a logarithmic process in which high amplitude sounds do not require the same resolution as low amplitude sounds. The human ear is more sensitive to quantization noise in small signals than large signals. A-law and -law coding apply a logarithmic quantization function to adjust the data resolution in proportion to the level of the input signal.

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Speech Companding
quantises the difference between the original and the predicted signals, i.e. the difference between successive values. Leads to reduction in the number of bits used per sample over that used for PCM. Using DPCM can reduce the bit rate of voice transmission down to 48 kbps.

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Inter Symbol Interference

If the system impulse response h(t) extends over more than 1 symbol period, symbols become smeared into adjacent symbol periods Known as inter symbol interference (ISI)

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Inter Symbol Interference

amplitude

1.0
0.5

amplitude

Modulator input
Binary 1

Slicer input

1.0
0.5 0

Binary 1

2 4 6 Time (bit periods)

2 4 6 Time (bit periods)

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Noise in PCM Systems

The performance of a PCM system is influenced by two noise sources: (1) channel noise introduce bit errors into the received signal. The presence of this noise can be measured in terms of probability of symbol error or bit error rate (BER). can be made practically negligible by using high signal energy-to-noise density ratio through short spacing between regenerative repeaters. 73

Noise in PCM Systems

(2) quantization noise. can be made negligible by increasing the number of levels L selecting a compressor-expander pair that is matched to the message signal characteristics.

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Limitations of PCM systems

Choosing a discrete value near the analog signal for each sample leads to quantization error Between samples no measurement of the signal is made; Accurate clock is required for accurate reproduction
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Merits and Demerits of PCM

Merits
Secured. Encoding is possible. Very high noise immunity. Convenient for long distance communication. Good signal to noise ratio.

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Merits and Demerits of PCM

Demerits
Complex circuitry. Requires large bandwidth. Synchronization is required between transmitter & receiver.

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Delta Modulation (DM)

only one bit is transmitted per sample That bit is a one if the current sample is more positive than the previous sample, and a zero if it is more negative Since so little information is transmitted, delta modulation requires higher sampling rates than PCM for equal quality of reproduction
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Delta Modulation (DM)

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Delta Modulation (DM)

Let mn m(nTs ) , n 0,1,2, whereTs is the sampling period and m(nTs ) is a sample of m(t ). The error signal is en mn mq n 1 eq n sgn(en ) mq n mq n 1 eq n

where mq n is the quantizer output , eq n is

the quantized version of en , and is the step size

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DM System

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Slope overload distortion And Granular noise

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Merits and Demerits of DM

Merits
One bit code word for output. Low signaling rate. Low channel bandwidth. No ADC is required

Demerits
1. 2. Slope overload present. Granular noise present.
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Delta-Sigma Modulation
Alternatively known as Pulse Density modulation or Pulse Frequency modulation Modification of the delta modulation

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Delta-Sigma Modulation
Conventional delta modulation - Quantizer input is an approximation of the derivative of the input message signal m(t). Results in the accumulation of error (noise)
accumulated noise (transmission disturbances) at the receiver (cumulative error).

Possible solution: integrating the message before delta modulation called delta sigma modulation
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Delta-Sigma Modulation
The message signal is defined in its continuous form so pulse modulator contains a hard limiter and a pulse generator to produce a 1-bit encoded signal integration at the tx requires differentiation at the rx side. But: As in conventional DM the message has to be integrated at the final stage this eliminates the need of differentiation here.
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Delta-Sigma Modulation System

Figure 3.25

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Merits and Demerits of DSM

Merits
Low frequency component of input signal is boosted Correlation between adjacent samples of delta modulator is increased Simplifies the receiver design

Demerits
Requires sampling rate far in excess of the Nyquist rate 88

Adaptive Delta Modulation

This is the advanced version of DM. Avoid the problem on slope over load error and granular noise problem. step size is adapted to the slope (variation) of the message signal.

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Adaptive Delta Modulation

If successive errors are of opposite polarity, then the delta modulator is operating in the granular mode; in such a case it is advantageous to use reduced step size. If successive errors are of the same polarity, then the delta modulator is operating in its slopeoverload mode; in this case, the step size should be increased.

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ADM System

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ADM Waveform

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Merits and Demerits of ADM

Merits
Improved SNR. Low signaling rate. Wider dynamic range Better bandwidth utilization Reduction in slope overload and granular noise. 93

Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) Voice and video signals represented in PCM exhibit high correlation, which means that PCM signals contain redundant information. The result is an inefficient coding. By removing the PCM information redundancy a more efficient coded signal may be obtained.
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DPCM System

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DPCM System
If the prediction is well performed, then the variance of e(k) will be much smaller than the variance of m(k), which results into a smaller number of levels to quantize e(k). DPCM can be described as a predictive coding scheme.
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Type of Predictor
One-tap predictor N-tap predictor

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Merits and Demerits of DPCM

Merits
1. Less signaling rate. 2. Less bandwidth. 3. Requires less quantization levels

Demerits
1. 2. High bit rate. Needs the predictor circuit to be used which is complex. 98

Reference
Digital Communication
by Sanjay Sharma

Advance Electronic Communication

by Robert Tomasi

World Wide Web

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