Database Systems

Relational Algebra
Syed Sarmad Ali Database Management Systems
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Lecture 11
Todays agenda
Example Database Application (COMPANY)
Relational Algebra
Unary Relational Operations
Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory

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Relational Algebra Overview
Unary Relational Operations
SELECT (symbol: s (sigma))
PROJECT (symbol: p (pi))
RENAME (symbol: r (rho))
Relational Algebra Operations from Set Theory
UNION ( ), INTERSECTION ( ), DIFFERENCE (or
MINUS, )
CARTESIAN PRODUCT ( x )
Binary Relational Operations
JOIN (several variations of JOIN exist)
DIVISION
Additional Relational Operations
OUTER JOINS, OUTER UNION
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (SUM, COUNT, AVG, MIN, MAX)
Relational Algebra
The basic set of operations for the relational model is known as the
relational algebra. These operations enable a user to specify basic
retrieval requests.

The result of a retrieval is a new relation, which may have been formed
from one or more relations. The algebra operations thus produce new
relations, which can be further manipulated using operations of the same
algebra.

A sequence of relational algebra operations forms a relational algebra
expression, whose result will also be a relation that represents the result
of a database query (or retrieval request).
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Relational Algebra: 5 Basic Operations
Selection ( ) Selects a subset of rows from relation
(horizontal).
Projection ( ) Retains only wanted columns from relation
(vertical).
Cross-product (x) Allows us to combine two relations.
Set-difference () Tuples in r1, but not in r2.
Union ( ) Tuples in r1 and/or in r2.

Since each operation returns a relation, operations can be
composed! (Algebra is closed.)
o
t
Unary Relational Operations
SELECT Operation


SELECT operation is used to select a subset of the tuples from a relation that satisfy a
selection condition. It is a filter that keeps only those tuples that satisfy a qualifying
condition those satisfying the condition are selected while others are discarded.

Example: To select the EMPLOYEE tuples whose department number is four or those whose
salary is greater than $30,000 the following notation is used:
oDNO = 4 (EMPLOYEE)
oSALARY > 30,000 (EMPLOYEE)

In general, the select operation is denoted by
o <selection condition>
(R) where the
symbol o (sigma) is used to denote the select operator, and the selection condition is a
Boolean expression specified on the attributes of relation R


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Unary Relational Operations
SELECT Operation Properties


The SELECT operation o
<selection condition>
(R) produces a relation S that has
the same schema as R

The SELECT operation o is commutative; i.e.,
o
<condition1>
(o
< condition2>
(

R)) = o
<condition2>
(o
< condition1>
( R))

A cascaded SELECT operation may be applied in any order; i.e.,
o
<condition1>
(o
< condition2>
(o
<condition3>
(

R))
= o
<condition2>
(o
< condition3>
(o
< condition1>
( R)))

A cascaded SELECT operation may be replaced by a single selection
with a conjunction of all the conditions; i.e.,
o
<condition1>
(o
< condition2>
(o
<condition3>
(

R))
= o
<condition1> AND < condition2> AND < condition3>
( R)))


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FIGURE 6.1
Results of SELECT and PROJECT operations. (a) o
(DNO=4 AND SALARY>25000) OR
(DNO=5 AND SLARY>30000)
(EMPLOYEE). (b) t
SEX, SALARY
(EMPLOYEE).
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Select rating where rating is greater
than 8
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
Answer
o
rating
S
>8
2 ( )
Unary Relational Operations (cont.)
PROJECT Operation

This operation selects certain columns from the table and discards the other columns. The
PROJECT creates a vertical partitioning one with the needed columns (attributes)
containing results of the operation and other containing the discarded Columns.

Example: To list each employees first and last name and salary, the following is used:
t
LNAME, FNAME,SALARY
(EMPLOYEE)
The general form of the project operation is t<attribute list>(R) where t (pi) is the symbol
used to represent the project operation and <attribute list> is the desired list of attributes from
the attributes of relation R.

The project operation removes any duplicate tuples, so the result of the project operation is a
set of tuples and hence a valid relation.


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Projection
) 2 (
,
S
rating sname
t

t
age
S ( ) 2
S2
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0

sname rating
yuppy 9
lubber 8
guppy 5
rusty 10

age
35.0
55.5

Unary Relational Operations (cont.)
PROJECT Operation Properties

The number of tuples in the result of projection t
<list>
(R)is
always less or equal to the number of tuples in R.

If the list of attributes includes a key of R, then the number
of tuples is equal to the number of tuples in R.

t
<list1>
(t
<list2>
(R) ) = t
<list1>
(R) as long as <list2>
contains the attributes in <list2>

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FIGURE 6.1
Results of SELECT and PROJECT operations. (a) o
(DNO=4 AND SALARY>25000) OR
(DNO=5 AND SLARY>30000)
(EMPLOYEE). (b) t
SEX, SALARY
(EMPLOYEE).
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(a) Project sname,rating

(b) Project age
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
t
sname rating
S
,
( ) 2
t
age
S ( ) 2
sname rating
yuppy 9
lubber 8
guppy 5
rusty 10
age
35.0
55.5
Unary Relational Operations (cont.)
Rename Operation

We may want to apply several relational algebra operations one after the other. Either we
can write the operations as a single relational algebra expression by nesting the operations,
or we can apply one operation at a time and create intermediate result relations. In the
latter case, we must give names to the relations that hold the intermediate results.

Example: To retrieve the first name, last name, and salary of all employees who work in
department number 5, we must apply a select and a project operation. We can write a single
relational algebra expression as follows:

t
FNAME, LNAME, SALARY
(o
DNO=5
(EMPLOYEE))

OR We can explicitly show the sequence of operations, giving a name to each intermediate
relation:
DEP5_EMPS o
DNO=5
(EMPLOYEE)
RESULT t
FNAME, LNAME, SALARY
(DEP5_EMPS)
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Unary Relational Operations (cont.)

The RENAME operator is used to give a name to results or output of queries,
returns of selection statements, and views of queries that we would like to
view at some other point in time: [3] [4] [5] [6]
The RENAME operator is symbolized by (rho).
The general syntax for RENAME operator is:
s(B1, B2, B3,.Bn)
(R )
is the RENAME operation.
S is the new relation name.
B
1
, B
2
, B
3
, B
n
are the new renamed attributes (columns).


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RENAME OPERATOR
The RENAME Operator
R is the relation or table from which the attributes are chosen.
To implement the RENAME statement in SQL, we take a look at an example in which we
would like to choose the Date of Birth and Employee Number attributes and RENAME
them as Birth_Date and Employee_Number from the EMPLOYEE relation

(Birth_Date, Employee_Number)
(EMPLOYEE ) t
dob, empno
(EMPLOYEE )

The arrow symbol means that we first get the PROJECT operation results on the right
side of the arrow then apply the RENAME operation on the results on the left side of the
arrow.

FIGURE 6.2
Results of a sequence of operations. (a) t
FNAME, LNAME,
SALARY
(o
DNO=5
(EMPLOYEE)). (b) Using intermediate relations
and renaming of attributes.
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Union and Set-Difference
All of these operations take two input
relations, which must be union-compatible:
Same number of fields.
`Corresponding fields have the same
type.

For which, if any, is duplicate elimination
required?


Union

S S 1 2
S1
S2
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0

sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0

sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0
28 yuppy 9 35.0

Relational Algebra Operations From
Set Theory
UNION Operation
The result of this operation, denoted by R S, is a relation that includes all tuples that are either
in R or in S or in both R and S. Duplicate tuples are eliminated.

Example: To retrieve the social security numbers of all employees who either work in department
5 or directly supervise an employee who works in department 5, we can use the union operation as
follows:
DEP5_EMPS o
DNO=5
(EMPLOYEE)
RESULT1 t
SSN
(DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT2(SSN) t
SUPERSSN
(DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT RESULT1 RESULT2

The union operation produces the tuples that are in either RESULT1 or RESULT2 or both. The
two operands must be type compatible.
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Relational Algebra Operations From
Set Theory
Type Compatibility

The operand relations R
1
(A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n
) and R
2
(B
1
, B
2
, ..., B
n
)
must have the same number of attributes, and the domains of
corresponding attributes must be compatible; that is,
dom(A
i
)=dom(B
i
) for i=1, 2, ..., n.


The resulting relation for R
1
R
2
,R
1
R
2
, or R
1
-R
2
has the same
attribute names as the first operand relation R1 (by
convention).
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Relational Algebra Operations From
Set Theory
UNION Example

STUDENTINSTRUCTOR

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Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory
(cont.)
INTERSECTION OPERATION

The result of this operation, denoted by R S, is a relation that includes all tuples that are in
both R and S. The two operands must be "type compatible"

Example: The result of the intersection operation (figure below) includes only those who are
both students and instructors.

STUDENT INSTRUCTOR


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Intersection

S1
S2
S S 1 2
sid sname rating age
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0

sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0

sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0

Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory (cont.)
Set Difference (or MINUS) Operation

The result of this operation, denoted by R - S, is a relation that includes all tuples that are in
R but not in S. The two operands must be "type compatible.

Example: The figure shows the names of students who are not instructors, and the names of
instructors who are not students.


STUDENT-INSTRUCTOR
INSTRUCTOR-STUDENT
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Set Difference

S1
S2
S S 1 2
S2 S1
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0

sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0

sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0

sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0

Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory (cont.)
Notice that both union and intersection are commutative operations; that is
R S = S R, and R S = S R

Both union and intersection can be treated as n-ary operations applicable
to any number of relations as both are associative operations; that is
R (S T) = (R S) T, and (R S) T = R (S T)

The minus operation is not commutative; that is, in general
R - S S R
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Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory (cont.)
CARTESIAN (or cross product) Operation

This operation is used to combine tuples from two relations in a combinatorial
fashion. In general, the result of R(A
1
, A
2
, . . ., A
n
) x S(B
1
, B
2
, . . ., B
m
) is a relation
Q with degree n + m attributes Q(A
1
, A
2
, . . ., A
n
, B
1
, B
2
, . . ., B
m
), in that order.
The resulting relation Q has one tuple for each combination of tuplesone
from R and one from S.
Hence, if R has n
R
tuples (denoted as |R| = n
R
), and S has n
S
tuples, then
| R x S | will have n
R
* n
S
tuples.
The two operands do NOT have to be "type compatible

Example:

FEMALE_EMPS o
GENDER=F
(EMPLOYEE)
EMPNAMES t
FNAME, LNAME, SSN
(FEMALE_EMPS)

EMP_DEPENDENTS EMPNAMES x DEPENDENT

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FIGURE6.5a
The CARTESIAN PRODUCT (CROSS PRODUCT)
operation.
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FIGURE6.5b
The CARTESIAN PRODUCT (CROSS PRODUCT)
operation.
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Cross Product Example
R1
S1
R1 X S1 =
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0

sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96



Compound Operator: Join
Joins are compound operators involving cross product, selection, and (sometimes)
projection.
Most common type of join is a natural join (often just called join). R S
conceptually is:
Compute R X S
Select rows where attributes that appear in both relations have equal
values
Project all unique atttributes and one copy of each of the common
ones.
Note: Usually done much more efficiently than this.
Useful for putting normalized relations back together.



Natural Join Example
R1
S1
R1 S1 =
sid sname rating age bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 103 11/12/96
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0

sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96



Other Types of Joins
Condition Join (or theta-join):


Result schema same as that of cross-
product.
May have fewer tuples than cross-product.


Equi-Join: Special case: condition c contains only conjunction of
equalities.
R
c
S
c
R S = o ( )


Theta Join Example
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96
R1
S1

S1
S1.sid<R1.sid
R1
=
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96