EE T43: Electronic circuits

Objectives
Describe the basic concept of an oscillator

Discuss the basic principles of operation of an
oscillator

Analyze the operation of RC and LC oscillators

Describe the operation of the basic relaxation
oscillator & Crystal Oscillator circuits



Introduction
Oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a
periodic waveform on its output without an
external signal source. It is used to convert dc to ac.
Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous
signal of some type without the need of an input.
These signals serve a variety of purposes.
Communications systems, digital systems
(including computers), and test equipment make use
of oscillators
Introduction
An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive signal from
a dc voltage.
The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback of the
output to maintain the oscillations.
The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing circuit to
generate a nonsinusoidal signal such as square wave
Sine wave
Square wave
Sawtooth wave
An oscillator is an electronic system.



It comprises active and passive circuit elements and sinusoidal
produces repetitive waveforms at the output without the application of a
direct external input signal to the circuit.


It converts the dc power from the source to ac power in the load. A
rectifier circuit converts ac to dc power, but an oscillator converts dc noise
signal/power to its ac equivalent.
.
INTRODUCTION:
In this chapter we will explore the working principle of the
oscillator. Generally speaking, the oscillator produces sinusoidal and
other waveforms.
Beginning with a detailed circuit analysis of the oscillator, we will
proceed to discuss the conditions and frequency of oscillation.
Following this, the different types of oscillatorsTuned
oscillator, Hartley oscillator, Colpitts oscillator, Clapp
oscillator, Phase-shift oscillator, Crystal oscillator and Wien-
bridge oscillatorwill be examined with detailed mathematical
analysis and illustrations.
The chapter ends with an overview of the applications of the
oscillator.
Objectives:
Oscillators are classified based on the type of the output
waveform.
If the generated waveform is sinusoidal or close to sinusoidal (with a
certain frequency) then the oscillator is said to be a Sinusoidal
Oscillator.
If the output waveform is non-sinusoidal, which refers to square/saw-
tooth waveforms, the oscillator is said to be a
Relaxation Oscillator.
An oscillator has a positive feedback with the loop gain infinite.
Feedback-type sinusoidal oscillators can be classified as LC
(inductor-capacitor) and RC (resistor-capacitor) oscillators.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF OSCILLATORS:
The classification of various oscillators is shown in Table 12-1.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF OSCILLATORS:
Types of oscillators
1. RC oscillators
Wien Bridge
Phase-Shift
2. LC oscillators
Hartley
Colpitts
Crystal
3. Unijunction / relaxation oscillators
4. Crystal oscillators
Basic principles for oscillation
An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback.
A
|
V
e
V
f
V
s
V
o
+
(1)
f s e
V V V + =
(2)
o f
V V =
( ) ( ) (3)
o s f s e o
V V A V V A AV V + = + = =
Basic principles for oscillation






The closed loop gain is:
( ) ( )
o s f s
e o
V V A V V A
AV V
+ = + =
=

o s o
V A AV V | + =
( )
s o
AV V A = | 1
( ) A
A
V
V
A
s
o
f

=
1
Basic principles for oscillation
In general A and | are functions of frequency and
thus may be written as;



is known as loop gain
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) s s A 1
s A
s
V
V
s A
s
o
f

= =
( ) ( ) s s A
Basic principles for oscillation
Thus, the condition for sinusoidal oscillation of
frequency f
0
is;


This is known as Barkhausen criterion.
The frequency of oscillation is solely determined by
the phase characteristic of the feedback loop the
loop oscillates at the frequency for which the phase
is zero.
( ) ( ) 1
0 0
= j j A
Basic principles for oscillation
The feedback oscillator is widely used for
generation of sine wave signals.
The positive (in phase) feedback arrangement
maintains the oscillations.
The feedback gain must be kept to unity to keep the
output from distorting.
Basic principles for oscillation
In phase
Noninverting
amplifier
V
f
V
o
A
v
Feedback
circuit
Design Criteria for Oscillators
1. The magnitude of the loop gain must be unity or
slightly larger
Barkhaussen criterion

2. Total phase shift,| of the loop gain mus t be
Nx360 where N=0, 1, 2,
1 = A

Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits
For frequencies above 1 Mhz, LC feedback
oscillators are used. We will discuss the
Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley, Armstrong, and
crystal-controlled oscillators. Transistors
are used as the active device in these
types.
Oscillators With LC Feedback
Circuits
The Hartley oscillator is
similar to the Clapp and
Colpitts. The tank circuit
has two inductors and
one capacitor. The
calculation of the
resonant frequency is
the same.
Colpitts Oscillator:

RC Oscillators
RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to
frequencies of 1 MHz or less.
The types of RC oscillators that we will discuss are
the Wien-bridge and the phase-shift
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator
The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits
to provide 180 phase shift that when coupled with
the 180 of the op-amp itself provides the necessary
feedback to sustain oscillations.
The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the
oscillations.
The frequency of resonance for the this type is
similar to any RC circuit oscillator:
RC
f
r
6 2
1
t
=
Wien-bridge Oscillator
It is a low frequency oscillator which ranges from a
few kHz to 1 MHz.
Circuit Diagram of Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
Advantages of Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
1. The frequency of oscillation can be easily varied just by changing RC
network
2. High gain due to two-stage amplifier
3. Stability is high

Disadvantages of Wien-Bridge Oscillator
The main disadvantage of the Wien-bridge oscillator is that a high frequency
of oscillation cannot be generated.
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
LC Oscillators
Use transistors and LC tuned circuits or crystals in
their feedback network.
For hundreds of kHz to hundreds of MHz frequency
range.
Examine Tuned collector ,Colpitts, Hartley and
crystal oscillator.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF TUNED OSCILLATOR:
Crystal Oscillator
Most communications and digital applications require the
use of oscillators with extremely stable output. Crystal
oscillators are invented to overcome the output fluctuation
experienced by conventional oscillators.
Crystals used in electronic applications consist of a quartz
wafer held between two metal plates and housed in a a
package as shown in Fig. 9 (a) and (b).
Crystal Oscillator
Piezoelectric Effect
The quartz crystal is made of silicon oxide (SiO
2
) and
exhibits a property called the piezoelectric
When a changing an alternating voltage is applied across
the crystal, it vibrates at the frequency of the applied
voltage. In the other word, the frequency of the applied ac
voltage is equal to the natural resonant frequency of the
crystal.
The thinner the crystal, higher its frequency of vibration.
This phenomenon is called piezoelectric effect.
Crystal Oscillator
Characteristic of Quartz
Crystal
The crystal can have two resonant
frequencies;
One is the series resonance frequency f
1

which occurs when X
L
= X
C
. At this
frequency, crystal offers a very low
impedance to the external circuit where
Z = R.
The other is the parallel resonance (or
antiresonance) frequency f
2
which
occurs when reactance of the series leg
equals the reactance of C
M
. At this
frequency, crystal offers a very high
impedance to the external circuit
R
L
C
C
M

Circuit Diagram of CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
Crystal Oscillator
The crystal is connected as a series element in the
feedback path from collector to the base so that it is
excited in the series-resonance mode
BJT
FET
Crystal Oscillator
Since, in series resonance, crystal impedance is the smallest that
causes the crystal provides the largest positive feedback.
Resistors R
1
, R
2
, and R
E
provide a voltage-divider stabilized dc bias
circuit. Capacitor C
E
provides ac bypass of the emitter resistor, R
E

to avoid degeneration.
The RFC coil provides dc collector load and also prevents any ac
signal from entering the dc supply.
The coupling capacitor C
C
has negligible reactance at circuit
operating frequency but blocks any dc flow between collector and
base.
The oscillation frequency equals the series-resonance frequency of
the crystal and is given by:

C
o
LC
f
t 2
1
=
Unijunction Oscillator
The unijunction transistor
can be used in what is
called a relaxation oscillator
as shown by basic circuit as
follow.
The unijunction oscillator
provides a pulse signal
suitable for digital-circuit
applications.
Resistor R
T
and capacitor C
T

are the timing components
that set the circuit
oscillating rate
UJT
Unijunction Oscillator
Sawtooth wave
appears at the emitter
of the transistor.
This wave shows the
gradual increase of
capacitor voltage
Unijunction Oscillator
The oscillating frequency is calculated as follows:



where, = the unijunction transistor intrinsic stand-
off ratio
Typically, a unijunction transistor has a stand-off
ratio from 0.4 to 0.6
( ) | | q
~
1 / 1 ln
1
T T
o
C R
f
Oscillators are a common element of almost all electronic circuits. They are used
in various applications, and their use makes it possible for circuits and subsystems to
perform numerous useful functions.
Oscillators are commonly used in communication circuits. All the
communication circuits for different modulation techniquesAM, FM, PMthe use of an
oscillator is must.
Oscillators are used as stable frequency sources in a variety of electronic
applications.
Oscillator circuits are used in computer peripherals, counters, timers,
calculators, phase-locked loops, digital multi-metres, oscilloscopes,
and numerous other applications.
APPLICATIONS OF OSCILLATORS: