New Trends in Multicultural Education

Multicultural considerations in teacher pedagogy: The issue of multicultural education is of paramount importance in the twenty-first century (Banks & Banks, 2001). Diversity in the United States will become progressively more reflected in the country's schools. It is anticipated that students of color will make up about 48 percent of the nation's school-age youth by the year 2020. Poverty is also becoming an increasingly important issue that affects quality of education. According to Banks and Banks (2001), in 1999 approximately 36.6 million people in the United States were living in poverty, including 1 in 5 students. Also important to consider is the fact that although the nation's students are becoming increasingly diverse, most of the nation's teachers are White, middle-class, and female. These demographic, social, and economic trends have important implications for education (Banks & Banks, 2001).

Multicultural education is intended to decrease race, ethnicity, class, and gender divisions by helping all students attain the knowledge, attitudes, and skills they need in order to become active citizens in a democratic society and participate in social change (Valdez, 1999). It is imperative that teachers learn how to recognize, honor, and incorporate the personal abilities of students into their teaching strategies (Gay, 2000). If this is done, then school achievement will improve.

Benchmarks and characteristics of a multicultural school

If multicultural education is to work in a classroom, it must also be reflected within the whole school. A multicultural school would practice transformative and social action approaches, in which the entire curriculum reflects multicultural perspectives and encourages students and staff to take social action concerning race issues (Banks, 1999). The multicultural benchmarks can serve as guidelines for schools in maintaining an effective multicultural school.

Banks (1999) lists eight multicultural benchmarks for schools to utilize in order to maintain an effective multicultural school. He states the following should be in place (p. 106): A multicultural education policy statement sanctions and supports diversity. The staff has positive attitudes and expectations toward diverse students. The school staff reflects ethnic and cultural diversity. The curriculum is transformational and action-focused. Parent participation provides a cultural context for teaching and a link with student personal/cultural knowledge. Teaching strategies are constructivist, personalized, empowering, and participatory. Teaching materials present diverse racial, ethnic, and cultural perspectives on events, concepts, and issues. Each program component is monitored on a continuing basis.

A Policy Statement
School districts should have a policy statement on multicultural education that conveys the board of education's dedication to establishing and preserving schools in which students from all groups have an equal opportunity to learn (Banks, 1999). The purposes of a policy statement include: legitimacy to multicultural education in the district; facilitating the creation of programs and practices that promote cultural diversity and equal educational opportunities for all; communication to parents and the public that multicultural education is a priority in the district (Banks, 1999).

The statement should include a rationale for multicultural education and guidelines that can be used by staff in the district to develop and apply a comprehensive multicultural education plan (Banks, 1999). The New York City board of education's policy statement (1989) included the following rationale: Whereas, people from all parts of the world live and work in New York City, necessitating a multicultural education which fosters intergroup knowledge and understanding and equips students to function effectively in a global society; and Whereas, multicultural education values cultural pluralism and rejects the view that schools should seek to melt away cultural differences or merely tolerate cultural diversity; rather, multicultural education accepts cultural diversity as a valuable resource that should be preserved and extended. . .

Following is an example of major objectives for multicultural education written in the Indianapolis Public Schools' (1996) policy statement: 1. To promote and foster intergroup understanding, awareness, and appreciation by students and staff of the diverse ethnic, racial, cultural, and linguistic groups represented in the Indianapolis Public Schools, the United States, and the world. 2. To help students develop more positive attitudes toward cultural diversity, especially in early grades by dispelling misconceptions, stereotypes, and negative beliefs about themselves and others. 3. To identify the impact of racism and other barriers to acceptance of differences.

The School Staff

All school staff should represent the racial and cultural diversity in U.S. society. In order to develop positive attitudes toward racial and ethnic diversity, students need to see administrators, teachers, counselors, and others from various racial and ethnic backgrounds. This will encourage an understanding that our society values and respects people from different groups. Student beliefs can be strongly influenced by their experiences. If role definitions in the school reflect negative stereotyping, such as a white, male principal and female teachers, students may harbor inaccurate beliefs about gender and race. To help alleviate this problem, school districts should implement a policy for hiring and promotion of people from different racial, gender, and ethnic groups (Banks, 1999).

Staff Attitudes and Expectations

Continuous professional development programs can help educators in developing high expectations for low-income students and students of color and to better understand the cultural experiences of these students (Banks, 1999). Although many of these students have health, motivational, and educational needs that can often challenge teachers, many are academically gifted and talented (1999). Oftentimes, their talents are not immediately revealed by standardized testing (Fordham, 1996). Teachers must learn to be adept at discovering the hidden and underdeveloped abilities of students of color and low-income students (Banks, 1999). The theory of multiple intelligences developed by Gardner (1983) can be useful for teachers in reexamining the concept of intelligence and to develop a broader view of human ability.

The Curriculum
Concepts, events, issues, and problems from different ethnic perspectives and points of view should be included in the school curriculum (Banks, 1997). The curriculum should reflect a transformation and social action approach to multicultural education, rather than a contributions or additive approach (Banks, 1999). This means that the curriculum is reconceptualized by making ethnic content an integral part of a transformed curriculum and should be distinguished from merely adding ethnic content to the curriculum.

The teacher's role in implementing a multicultural curriculum is of great importance (Banks, 1999). The teacher has influence over the curriculum with his or her values, perspectives, and teaching styles. This is why it is not feasible to produce a multicultural curriculum, give it to teachers, and state that a multicultural curriculum exists in the district. Valuable multicultural materials are made ineffective when used by a teacher who lacks a knowledge base in multicultural education or who does not have positive attitudes toward a variety of racial, ethnic, and cultural groups. For this reason, it is imperative to implement continuous staff development. Another way to ensure that effective multicultural curriculums are being utilized in the schools is to analyze the pre-service teacher education programs (Banks, 1999). School districts should consider multicultural education components in teacher education institutions as a priority for the hiring of graduates.

Teaching Strategies
The teacher should be adept at implementing the multicultural curriculum with interactive and cooperative strategies (Banks, 1999). As part of the multicultural curriculum, students should be given many opportunities to express their feelings and emotions and to participate in dialogues and cooperative groups with their peers. Didactic, teacher-led instruction has serious weaknesses when teaching any content; however, it is notably unfitting when teaching multicultural content - an area in which diversity is valued and different perspectives are a vital part of the content.

Teaching Materials
Teaching materials in a school district should reflect the historical and contemporary experiences of a range of ethnic and cultural groups (Banks, 1999). However, it is not enough for textbooks and other materials to simply contain content about various groups. Issues and perspectives pertinent to various groups should be included, and the multicultural content should be a fundamental part of the textbook or presentation and not an add-on or appendage.

Disproportionality Banks (1999) explains, "A major goal of multicultural education is to create equal educational opportunities for students from different racial, ethnic, and social-class groups." There is great disparity in academic achievement and graduation rates for students from different racial and income groups in most school districts (1999). School districts must determine these gaps and develop a plan for eliminating them. Consideration must also be given to the proportion of students of color that is expelled or suspended from school, and the amount in special and gifted education (Sapon-Shevin, 1994; Zigmond, 1992). Oftentimes, students of color are overrepresented among students who are suspended from school and in classes for the mentally disabled (Reschly, 1988). Conversely, these students are typically underrepresented in gifted education.

Parent Involvement
Because of the problems schools encounter, helping students to achieve academic skills and to become productive citizens becomes increasingly difficult - unless it seeks the support of parents and the community (Graham, 1992; Hidalgo, Bright, Siu, Swap, & Epstein, 1995). However, it is a challenging task to attain the support of parents because of the rising numbers of both parents working outside the home (Banks, 1999). In Education Week (1986) an article, "Here They Come, Ready or Not," reported that fewer than 5 percent of U.S. households now reflect the traditional family model of the past (i.e., a working father, mother at home, and two or more school-age children).

Because of the increased levels of stress and demands on time in U.S. households, schools must reconsider ways parents can realistically be involved in the school (Comer, 1980). Schools should be careful not to consider noninvolvement in traditional methods as a lack of parent interest (Banks, 1999). School districts should employ a program for involving parents that is considerate of the changing characteristics of families, parents, and society (Banks, C.A.M., 1997; Graham, 1992; Hodkingson, 1991). It is the school's responsibility to reach out to its surrounding community and welcome outside involvement.

Monitoring The successful implementation and maintenance of a multicultural education program is dependent on an effective evaluative plan (Banks, 1999). It is necessary for methods to be developed in order to conclude whether multicultural education goals established by the board of education are being achieved. A successful monitoring program may consist of: (1) classroom visits to observe the use of strategies that are consistent with cultural characteristics of students; (2) inspections of standardized test scores disaggregated by race and social class; (3) investigations of the proportion of students of color who are suspended, are dropouts, and who are classified as mentally disabled and gifted.

The monitoring program should be implemented on a systems level and not focus on any one individual (Banks, 1999). An effective and well-conceptualized evaluative program will provide the feedback necessary to determine whether multicultural benchmarks are being met in the school and future directions to follow to ensure the ongoing improvement of its multicultural climate.

Banks (1999) described the following as characteristics of multicultural schools (p. 17): 1. The teachers and school administrators have high expectations for all students and positive attitudes toward them. They also respond to them in positive and caring ways. 2. The formalized curriculum reflects the experiences, cultures, and perspectives of a range of cultural and ethnic groups as well as of both genders. 3. The teaching styles used by the teachers match the learning, cultural, and motivational styles of the students. 4. The teachers and administrators show respect for the students' first languages and dialects. 5. The instructional materials used in the school show events, situations, and concepts from the perspectives of a range of cultural, ethnic, and racial groups. 6. The assessment and testing procedures used in the school are culturally sensitive and result in students of color being represented proportionately in classes for the gifted and talented. 7. The school culture and the hidden curriculum reflect cultural and ethnic diversity. 8. The school counselors have high expectations for students from different racial, ethnic, and language groups and help these students to set and realize positive career goals.

Key Concepts to Guide the Study of Ethnic and Cultural Groups Banks (1999) explains 11 key concepts to guide the study of ethnic and cultural groups (p. 57): 1. Origins and immigration 2. Shared culture, values, and symbols 3. Ethnic identity and sense of peoplehood 4. Perspectives, world views and frames of reference 5. Ethnic institutions and self-determination 6. Demographic, social, political, and economic status 7. Prejudice, discrimination, and racism 8. Intraethnic diversity 9. Assimilation and acculturation 10. Revolution 11. Knowledge construction

1. Origins and Immigration

It is important to study origins and immigration patterns of ethnic and cultural groups (Banks, 1999). It is understood that most groups in the United States came from other lands; however, archeologists believe that Native Americans entered North America by crossing the Bering Strait between 45,000 and 40,000 years ago (Snipp, 1989). When studying the origins of the first Americans, it is crucial to discuss with students that many Native Americans believe they were created in this land by the Great Spirit (Champagne, 1994). It is beneficial to study both perspectives on the origins of Native Americans and should be presented and respected in the multicultural classroom (Banks, 1999).

2. Shared Culture, Values, and Symbols

Most ethnic groups in the United States have distinctive cultures and values that are complex and dynamic (Banks, 1999). This can be a result of an interaction of their original culture with the host culture in the United States, from ethnic institutions created partly as a response to discrimination, and from social-class status. These unique characteristics of cultures are always in the process of formulation and change. An example of an ethnic cultural characteristic is Black English, a form of English spoken by some African Americans (Heath, 1983; Kochman, 1981).

3. Ethnic Identity and Sense of Peoplehood

A common sense of identity results from a shared history and current experiences (Banks, 1999). Ethnic groups tend to perceive themselves and to be perceived by others as independent and detached from other groups in the population. For example, African Americans and Mexican Americans' shared sense of identity is reinforced by the racial discrimination they experience. This shared sense of identity can and often does go beyond national boundaries. Most Jews in New York and London have common feelings about the Holocaust (Dershowitz, 1997). Most African Americans identify with the struggle of the blacks in South Africa (Banks, 1999).

4. Perpsectives, World Views, and Frames of Reference Because of the shared sense of identity described above, people within the same ethnic group often view reality in a similar fashion (Banks, 1999). Many Latinos in the United States are likely to have positive opinion toward bilingual education and believe that their children should be able to speak both Spanish and English (Crawford, 1989). However, Latinos in the United States have diverse histories, origins, and social classes, and there is a variety of opinions on every issue within Latino communities, including bilingual education (Banks, 1999).

5. Ethnic Institutions and Self-Determination

Many ethnic institutions that were formed in response to discrimination and segregation (e.g., African American churches, colleges; Japanese and Jewish social organizations) continue today because they help ethnic groups to fulfill their unique social, cultural, and educational needs (Banks, 1999). Other ethnic institutions were created to work for the civil rights of specific ethnic groups and to fight discrimination.

6. Demographic, Social, Political, and Economic Status

Current demographic, social, political, and economic status are areas to explore when studying ethnic groups (Banks, 1999). The economic and educational status of ethnic groups are not constant (Banks, 1999). Considerable improvement in the economic and educational status of African Americans and Hispanics occurred during the 1960s and 1970s; however, these groups lost ground in both economic and educational status during the 1980s. Census figures in 1988 reveal that during the 1980s, the percentage of Whites living below the poverty level decreased, while the percentage of African Americans and Hispanics living below the poverty increased. In 1994, 9.7 percent of Whites, 30.7 percent of Hispanics, 30.6 percent of African Americans, and 14.5 percent of all races lived below the poverty level (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1994).

7. Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism

Prejudice, discrimination, and racism are important concepts for understanding the experiences of ethnic groups in the past, present, and future (Hannaford, 1996). When groups with varying racial, ethnic, and cultural characteristics interact, ethnocentrism, discrimination, and racism develop (Hannaford, 1996; Omi & Whinat, 1994). Institutional racism exists when the dominant group has the power to implement its racial ideology within the institutions of society (Banks, 1999). Groups like African Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and Latinos have been historically and currently are victims of institutional racism in the United States; however, racism in the United States today is much more subtle than it was prior to the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and 1970s (Cose, 1993; Feagin & Sikes, 1994).

8. Intraethnic Diversity
There are substantial differences within ethnic groups even though ethnic groups share a culture, values, a sense of identity, and a common history (Banks, 1999). If this is not kept in mind, new stereotypes and misconceptions are likely to be created. These differences result from such factors as: region (e.g., whether rural or urban); social class; religion; age; gender; sexual orientation; and political affiliation.

9. Assimilation and Acculturation

To assimilate means to give up ethnic characteristics and adopt those of another group (Gordon, 1964). Banks (1999) describes acculturation as, "The process that occurs when the characteristics of a group are changed because of interaction with another cultural or ethnic group" (p. 61). Because the interacting groups exchange cultural characteristics, both are changed in the process. The dominant ethnic or cultural group usually expects other groups to assume its language, culture, values, and behavior in most societies (Banks, 1999). The dominant group is generally at least moderately successful in getting other groups to adopt its culture and values because of the power that it holds. When ethnic minority groups hold on to many of their important cultural characteristics or when they are denied full participation in the dominant society after they have largely culturally been assimilated, cultural conflict usually develops.

10. Revolution
A political revolution occurs when a fundamental change takes place in the leadership of a society (Theodorson & Theodorson, 1969), and usually this involves violent upheaval and armed conflict. Other basic changes within a society that usually take place over a long period of time are also portrayed as revolutions (e.g., the industrial and agricultural revolutions) (Banks, 1999). Rather than sudden changes, these revolutions are gradual transformations of a society. Revolution is necessary for comprehending the history of most ethnic groups in the United States because of the impact of revolutions on their past.

11. Knowledge Construction

When studying the history and contemporary experiences of ethnic and cultural groups in the United States, it is important for students to understand how cultural experiences, biases, and values affect the knowledge construction process (Banks, 1996; Harding, 1991). It is also useful to guide students in constructing their own interpretations, and a transformative, multicultural curriculum can help to do this (Banks, 1999). Students should be given chances to partake in building knowledge and to construct their own explanations of historical, social, and current events. Knowledge construction is shaped extensively by the group experience of the knower. Knowledge construction is a compelling idea in multicultural education because it can be taught across disciplines and content areas (Banks, 1999). For example, it can be used to help students understand the values and assumptions that underlie the base-ten number system in mathematics, the scientific method in the natural and biological sciences, and literary interpretations in the language arts and humanities.

The Curriculum Considerations section provides information on actual lesson plans and units, approaches to multicultural education, a multicultural calendar, multicultural planning questions, cooperative learning, multicultural goals and strategies, evaluating children's books for bias, and cultural responsiveness. The example lessons are structured in a before and after format. The reader can view a lesson before multicultural restructuring and after multicultural restructuring in order to gain an understanding of how one's own lessons can be modified. Planning questions are provided to guide a teacher in forming multicultural lesson plans. The goals of multicultural education and strategies are given in order to aid in the construction of one's own planning questions. One multicultural strategy is the use of cooperative learning. This section provides a link to information about using cooperative learning in the classroom. Information about cultural responsiveness informs the teacher of his/her roles and responsibilities and how to utilize culturally responsive caring and teaching. All of the information provided in this section guides the teacher in practical applications of multicultural education.

The Contributions Approach

This approach reflects the least amount of involvement in multicultural education approaches. This is incorporated by selecting books and activities that celebrate holidays, heroes, and special events from various cultures. For example, spending time reading about Dr. Martin Luther King in January is a common practice that falls into this category. In this approach, culturally diverse books and issues are not specified as part of the curriculum (Banks, 1999).

The Additive Approach

In this approach content, concepts, themes, and perspectives are added to the curriculum without changing its basic structure. This involves incorporating literature by and about people from diverse cultures into the mainstream curriculum without changing the curriculum. For example, examining the perspective of a Native American about Thanksgiving would be adding cultural diversity to the traditional view of Thanksgiving. However, this approach does not necessarily transform thinking (Banks, 1999).

The Transformation Approach

This approach actually changes the structure of the curriculum and encourages students to view concepts, issues, themes, and problems from several ethnic perspectives and points of view. For example, a unit on Thanksgiving would become an entire unit exploring cultural conflict. This type of instruction involves critical thinking and involves a consideration of diversity as a basic premise (Banks, 1999).

The Social Action Approach

This approach combines the transformation approach with activities to strive for social change. Students are not only instructed to understand and question social issues, but to also do something important about it. For example, after participating in a unit about recent immigrants to North America, students may write letters to senators, Congress, and newspaper editors to express their opinions about new policies (Banks, 1999).

Film link

http://www.intime.uni.edu/multiculture/Media/list.htm