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Agenda
1. 2. 3. 4. Theory of Bank Credit Analyzing Bank Credit Risk Credit Process Credit Derivatives
Symmetric Information
If borrowers and sellers both can easily distinguish lemons from creampuffs, there is a simple market solution.
Buyers will pay $3000 for a creampuff and $2000 for a lemon and sellers will be happy to sell.
If neither borrowers nor sellers can distinguish between types, there is still a solution.
Buyers could pay the average of their values ($2000)+($3000) = $2,333. This would be higher than the average value to sellers: ($1000)+($2500) = $1500.
Asymmetric Information
What happens if buyers cant distinguish between types but sellers can? Buyers might be willing to offer $2,333 for a car of unknown type, but owners of creampuffs would value their car more highly than that. Only lemon owners would sell at that price. Buyers would have no reason to offer more than $2000. Only lemons will be bought and sold. No market for creampuffs will exist.
Raising Interest Rates May Not Compensate for Risks in Bond Markets
Only borrowers with lemon prospects will join bond markets. Typically we think bond buyers might take riskier assets if they were offered a higher interest rate. But if savers demand a higher interest rate under asymmetric information this will only exacerbate the lemon problem if higher interest rates drive creampuff borrowers out of the market.
Bond Buyers
Bond buyers will pay:
97 for a discount bond issued by a borrower identified as safe; 90 for a bond issued by a borrower identified as speculative 0 for bond issued by a crook.
If they cannot distinguish, they will pay a value equal to the expected value of the pool. In this pool, the expected value is (.75*97)+(.2*90)+(0.05*0) = 90.75 which implies a yield to maturity of i = .102.
Borrower will Pay Share at Most Safe 0.75 7.50% Speculative 0.2 15% Crook 0.05 Anything Unknown Type
Adverse Selection
Actions that lenders take to protect themselves from consequence of a lack of information lead to a worsening of the risk pool. In the extreme case, adverse selection can cause an entire market to disappear.
Credit Risk: the risk that a borrower will not pay back interest or principal on a loan.
Evaluating Bank Credit Risk History of Credit Performance (Charge-offs) Future expected losses (non-performing loans, types of lending, diversification) Current Strength of bank preparation (reserves, earnings coverage).
2.00% 1.50%
1.00% 0.50%
0.00% Total loans & leases Total real estate loans Commercial & industrial loans Loans to individuals All other loans & leases (including farm)
2007
2006
2005
2004
Nonaccrual Loans: Loans that are habitually past due and no longer accruing interest. Total Noncurrent = Past Due + Nonaccrual Charge-offs: Loans written off as uncollectable Recoveries: Sums later collected on loans written off. Net Chargoffs = Charge-offs - Recoveries
90 Days
Recovery
Net Chargeoffs
Total Chargeoffs
2007
2006
2005
2004
An undiversified portfolio also exposes a bank to risk. Concentration in the property market exposes the bank to systematic risk of property collapse.
Protection
Banks protect themselves from credit risk with reserves allocated to loan losses. Measures of these reserves measure banks protection against credit risk
1. Loan Loss Allowance/Loans 2. Loan Loss Allowance/Net Chargeoffs
Banks earnings are also a protection against losses Earnings Coverage = (NII-Burden)/Net Chargeoffs
Credit Process
I. II. III. IV. Credit Policy Business Development and Credit Analysis . Credit Execution Loan Review
I. Credit Policy
Loan Policy Loan Culture
1. Values Driven Risk Averse 2. Current Profit Different High risk/return lending, Cyclical Profits 3. Market Share Driven Low returns, large scale.
FICO
In USA, Fair Isaac Corp. develops models that evaluate consumer households likelihood of default. FICO or similar score used for consumer credit
Late payments The amount of time credit has been established The amount of credit used versus the amount of credit available Length of time at present residence Negative credit information such as bankruptcies, charge-offs, collections, etc.
In Hong Kong, recent relaxation of some rules governing sharing of consumer credit information.
5 Cs of Credit
1. Character Past history of borrower in paying bills. 2. Capital Borrowers Wealth Position 3. Collateral possession by the borrower of assets that back up the loan. 4. Conditions - trends and volatility of the borrowers industry 5. Capacity Legal Standing and ability of the borrower to generate loan payments on a consistent basis
III. Execution
Documentation
Loan Agreements
Restrictive Covenants
Loan Covenants
A central part of the credit process is the monitoring of borrowers. Banks restrict borrowers use of funds in the loan agreement.
Affirmative Covenants. Actions that the borrower must take. Maintaining liquidity and equity as measured by financial ratios, maintaining insurance, file financial reports, pay taxes, etc. Negative Covenants. Actions that the borrower cannot take. Taking on new debt, buying or selling assets, paying excessive dividends, paying excessive salaries or bonuses, etc.
Loan Workout
Process for dealing with defaulting creditors
Credit Derivatives
Risk Management Tools Used to transfer risk from one party to another. Credit Swaps A bank with credit risk exposure will pay X basis points per year and counter-party will make payment if there is a pre-determined credit event such as default or credit downgrade, etc. Total Return Swap: Bank with credit risk will pay the income stream from risky debt while counter-party will pay some fixed rate to bank..
Credit Swap
Bank A Fee Payment
Bank B
Credit Derivatives
Global Credit Derivatives 14000 12000 10000
US$ Trillion
8000 6000 4000 2000 0 1H01 2H01 1H02 2H02 1H03 2H03 1H04 2H04 1H05
Source: www.creditderiv.com
Extra Reading
HKMA Benefits of Sharing Positive Consumer Credit Data B. Hirtle, NY FED, 2007, Credit Derivatives and Bank Credit Supply BIS 2005 Credit Risk Transfer