SMJP 3333 (Mechatronics)

Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems

by Dr.Aung Lwin Moe Week 2-1
REF: David G. Alciatore Michael B. Histand

Measurement Fundamentals
1. Be able to define SI units and use them in calculations 2. Know how to use statistics fundamentals to characterize measured data 3. Be able to compute the error associated with a

measurement

SYSTEMS OF UNITS
Fundamental to the design, analysis, and use of any measurement system is a complete understanding of a consistent system of units used to quantify the physical parameters being measured. To define a system of units, we must select units of measure for fundamental quantities to serve as a basis for the definition of other physical parameters. Units for mass, length, time, temperature, electric current, amount of substance, and luminous intensity form one possible combination that serves this purpose. Other units used to measure physical quantities in mechatronic systems can be defined in terms of these seven base units. The seven base units we use to define mass, length, time, temperature, electric current, amount of substance, and luminous intensity are the kilogram, meter, second, Kelvin, ampere, mole, and candela.

 The kilogram is the only unit defined in terms of a material standard. It is established by a platinum-iridium prototype in the laboratory of the Bureau des Poids et Mesures in Paris. The meter is defined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the emission resulting from the transition between the 2p10 and 5d5 electron energy levels of the krypton 86 atom. This atomic standard for the meter was proposed long ago by Maxwell (1873) but not implemented until 1960. The second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom. The unit of absolute thermodynamic temperature is the Kelvin. The Kelvin scale has an absolute zero of 0 K, and no temperatures exist below this level. The ampere is defined as the constant current that, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible circular cross section and placed 1 meter apart in a vacuum The mole is defined as the amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon 12 ( 12C). The candela is defined as the luminous intensity, in the perpendicular direction, of a surface area of 1/600,000 m 2 of a black body at the freezing point of platinum under a pressure of 101,325 N/m 2 .

Three Classes of SI Units

SI units are divided into three classes: base units, derived units, and supplementary units. The complete set of SI base units and their symbols are listed in Table A.1 .

Derived units are expressed as algebraic combinations of the base units. Any known physical parameter can be quantified using a derived unit. Some examples of derived units are listed in Table A.2 .

Several derived units have been given special names and symbols, which may be used themselves to express other derived units in a simpler way than in terms of base units. Some examples of these supplemental units are listed in Table A.3 Often the base, derived, and supplemental units are modified with prefixes to enable convenient representation of large numerical ranges.

Often the base, derived, and supplemental units are modified with prefixes to enable convenient representation of large numerical ranges. The prefixes express orders of magnitude (powers of 10) of the unit, providing an alternative to scientific notation. The prefix names, symbols, and values are listed in Table A.4 .

Conversion Factors
English units are still common in engineering practice in the United States. Table A.5 lists several factors that help when converting between English and SI units.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Whenever we deal with numerical data, we need to be aware of precision, accuracy, and different ways to present the data. Also, in establishing a rational approach to making numerical calculations with measured values, we must present decimal numbers with the appropriate number of digits. The significant digits or significant figures in a number are those known with certainty. A measured value represented by N digits consists of N -1 significant digits that are certain and 1 digit that is estimated.

STATISTICS
When we process sets of data obtained from experimental measurements, we must handle the data in a rational, systematic, and organized fashion. The field of statistics provides models and rules for doing this properly

ERROR ANALYSIS
The process of making measurements is imperfect, and uncertainty will always be associated with measured values. It is important to recognize sources of error and estimate the magnitude of error when one makes a measurement. Usually a manufacturer defines the accuracy of an instrument in published specifications, but other factors come into play. A systematic error is one that reoccurs in the same way each time a measurement is made. The method used to minimize the magnitude of systematic error is calibration, where the measurement instrument is used to record values from a standard input and is adjusted to compensate for any discrepancy. Random errors occur due to the stochastic variations in a measurement process. Some of the statistical tools presented in the previous section enable us to reduce the effects of these errors. Blunders occur when the engineer or scientist makes a mistake. Blunders can be avoided by careful design and review and through the use of methodical procedures.

Figure A.3 illustrates systematic and random errors. The center of the target represents the desired value, and the shot pattern represents measured data. The systematic error, called inaccuracy, is associated with the shift of the shot pattern from the center of the target and could be corrected by improved sighting, known as calibration .The random error, called imprecision, is the size of the shot pattern and cannot be improved by adjusting the sighting. Accuracy is the closeness to the true value, and precision is the repeatability or consistency of the measurements.

Rules for Estimating Errors

CLASS DISCUSSION ITEM In one of your class lectures, form a single line in order of birth date with the youngest being first. Now form a birth year histogram by assembling into rows according to birth year. Store the histogram data (year, frequency) for use in Question A.2 at the end of the chapter.

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QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES