The first reference to an engine can be traced back to

100 AD to a Greek physicist and mathematical genius, Heros of Alexandria, who described the principle of a basic steam engine !n 1"#$ the %etherlands physicist &hristiaan Huygens built the first internal combustion engine This engine ran on gunpowder !n Huygens's design the power is generated by atmospheric pressure on the piston !t was not a practical engine because of the gunpowder

 !n 1"() a *ritish in+entor, Thomas ,a+ery, used the design

of -apin and de+eloped a pump engine without a piston This engine could pump water !n 1#0. Thomas %ewcomen built an impro+ed steam engine with a piston that operated in a cylinder He used the engine to pump water /ater 0ames 1att registered a patent on a steam engine with a crankshaft This engine con+erted the up and down motion into a rotary motion !n 1#)2 1att built his first double3action steam engine The power was generated by steam and not by atmospheric pressure

 !n 1)$( the American !saac *abbitt in+ented

a material for bearings This material allowed engines to run at high speeds 4n ( 5ay 1)#" the public witnessed %ikolaus August 4tto's new four3stroke engine !t produced $ h p at 1)0 r p m and was known as the 64tto Cycle engine

 !n 1)#" the American George *rayton built

the first two3stroke engine ,ir Dugald &lerk also in+ented a two3stroke engine, an impro+ement on *rayton's engine &lerk is named the father of the two3stroke engine !n 1)). Gottlieb Daimler built the first motor bike /ater in that year he built the first motor boat and the first motor coach

 Daimler and *en7 are often called the

fathers of the motor +ehicle After 18 years of contemplation, in 1)($, 9udolf Diesel patented the first diesel engine !t was manufactured by the engineering firm, :rupps

 The four3stroke engine is used in the

following;
motor

cars motor bikes boats trucks lifting e<uipment water pumps generators

 ,ince the operation of

each cylinder in a multi3cylinder engine is identical, we will focus only on a single3 cylinder engine =rom this knowledge you will understand the operation of all four3 stroke petrol engines

 The engine comprises a cylinder block in which a

cylinder is bored to accommodate the piston and piston rings A crankshaft is mounted on one side of the cylinder block which is closed in an oil pan>sump The included space is called the crankcase The oil pan contains a specified <uantity of engine lubricating oil The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod and a gudgeon pin

 ,ealing off the space abo+e the piston on the other side of

the cylinder, is a cylinder head The free +olume in the cylinder when the piston is at the extreme top in the cylinder is called the combustion chamber The cylinder head contains the intake and exhaust +al+es A +al+e mechanism opens and closes the +al+es This +al+e mechanism is acti+ated by the camshaft which is dri+en by the crankshaft at half3crankshaft speed An intake manifold with a carburettor is connected to the intake port which leads to the intake +al+e and hence the cylinder, while the exhaust manifold is connected to the exhaust port

?ou must know these terms and their abbre+iations;

Top Dead &entre @t.d.c.) when the piston is at the end of

the upward stroke, that is the highest point which the piston can reach in the cylinder bottom dead centre @b.d.c.) when the piston is at the end of the downward stroke, that is the lowest point which the piston can reach in the cylinder a stroke A the maximum distance of piston mo+ement between extreme pointsB these extreme points are t d c and b d c and the crankshaft turns through 1)0C a cycle A the four strokes of the pistonB one cycle is completed during two crankshaft re+olutions @#20CDand one camshaft re+olution

 The piston mo+es from t d c toward b d c 1hen the piston descends from t d c , the intake

+al+e starts opening 1ith the exhaust +al+e closed during the stroke, a partial +acuum or depression is created in the cylinder abo+e the piston Atmospheric pressure fills this partial +acuum and, in doing so, passes through the carburettor barrel !n the carburettor barrel petrol is mixed with air This air3fuel mixture fills the cylinder +ia the intake manifold and past the open intake +al+e 0ust after the piston reaches b d c , the intake +al+e is closed

 *oth the intake +al+e and the exhaust +al+e

remain closed during this stroke and the piston mo+es from b d c to t d c The petrol mixture is compressed in the relati+ely small combustion chamber 0ust before the piston reaches t d c , a high tension spark is introduced into the combustion chamber by means of the sparkplug and the petrol mixture is ignited

 *oth +al+es still remain closed and as a result

of ignition, combustion of the petrol mixture takes place rapidly High temperatures are de+eloped as a result of this combustion and cause the gases to expand This expansion exerts considerable pressure on the piston and the force is transmitted to the crankshaft +ia the connecting rod, thereby gi+ing a rotary motion @rotationD to the crankshaft

 As the piston reaches b d c , the exhaust +al+e is opened The crankshaft rotates as a result of momentum in the

crankshaft, assisted by the flywheel, and the piston mo+es from b d c to t d c The piston forces out the burnt gases past the open exhaust +al+e to the exhaust manifold from where it is fed to the atmosphere by pipes 1hen the piston reaches t d c , the engine is ready to start the following intake stroke and cycle

 A running engine emits the exhaust gas,

carbon monoxide The gas is +ery harmful to both people and the en+ironment /eaded petrol has now been phased out and more and more cars ha+e catalytic con+erters that con+ert the carbon monoxide to less harmful carbon dioxide
Engcycle w m+

 The two3stroke principle was in+ented by ,ir

Dugald &lerk in 1))0 ,till today two3stroke engines are widely used by motorcycles, lawn mowers and motorboats

 The construction of this engine is similar to that of the four3stroke petrol

engine Howe+er, the three3port two3stroke engine does not ha+e +al+es !nstead there are the intake port, the exhaust port and the transfer port, all of which are closed and opened by the mo+ing piston The transfer port has no direct connection with the atmosphere, but connects the crankcase with the cylinder abo+e the piston A second important feature is the crankcase which is air3tight and which contains no lubricating oil as the oil is added to the petrol A third feature is the piston crownB its design promotes sca+enging of the cylinder @,ca+enging occurs when the new gases from the bypass port push the burnt gases out the outlet port and so clean the cylinder D %ote that the transfer port is situated on one side of the cylinder while the intake and exhaust ports are on the opposite side of the cylinder

 The concepts, t d c , b d c and stroke, are the same

as with the four3stroke petrol engine A cycle, howe+er, is completed during only two piston strokes During this cycle, the crankshaft completes one re+olution, or $"0C The two phases of the cycle are completed during two piston strokes ,ca+enging is the most important aspect of the two3 stroke petrol engine *ecause the direct pumping action of the piston cannot be used in this case, the burnt gases are sca+enged by the incoming petrol mixture

 1ith the piston at b d c , the intake port is closed and the

other two ports open At this stage, the cylinder abo+e the piston is filled with the petrol mixture During 6piston3tra+el' from b d c to t d c , the transfer port is first closed by the piston and then the exhaust port As the piston ascends, the petrol mixture is compressed in the combustion chamber while a +acuum is created in the crankcase 1ith the upward mo+ement of the piston, the intake port is opened and the petrol mixture fills the +acuum in the crankcase 0ust before the piston reaches t d c , the compressed petrol mixture is ignited by a high tension spark

 After ignition of the petrol mixture, combustion causes high

temperatures to de+elop, and as a result the gases expand These expanding gases force the piston towards b d c and a powerful rotational mo+ement is gi+en to the crankshaft As the piston mo+es towards b d c , the intake port is closed and the petrol mixture is compressed in the crankcase 1ith the further mo+ement of the piston, the exhaust port is opened first and the burnt gases start escaping 0ust after this the transfer port is opened and the compressed petrol mixture in the crankcase enters the cylinder under pressure and assists in dri+ing out the burnt gases

 %ote that the piston crown is designed

specially so that the incoming petrol mixture is deflected This design is necessary to pre+ent the petrol mixture from escaping together with the burnt gases !f this doesn't happen, the petrol mixture will be wasted to a large extent while the upper section of the cylinder will still be filled with burnt gases

 -G 1#8

 &ompression ignition @& ! D engines are often called diesel

engines These engines are named after the German engineer, 9udolf Diesel !n 1)(2 he registered a patent on an engine that relied on the heat generated during compression to ignite a fuel of coal dust This fuel was forced into the cylinder by air pressure at the end of the stroke A *ritish engineer, Herbert Ackroyd3,tuart, impro+ed the & ! Engine His +ersion in+ol+ed the induction and compression of air and the timed inFection of li<uid by a pump

 Diesel fuel is crude oil which has not been refined to

the extent petrol has, and is therefore cheaper to manufacture & ! engines operate as a result of fuel burning in the cylinder which is dependent on the amount of heat generated by the burning fuel This heat energy is then con+erted into useful work The construction of the & ! Engine is the same as that of the spark3ignition engine and can also be di+ided into the four3stroke and the two3stroke type

 The engine consists mainly of the following components

@similar to petrol engineD; cylinder A an integral part of the cylinder block piston A has a perfect fit in the cylinder connecting rod A coupled to the piston by means of a gudgeon pin and which facilitates a hinge action crankshaft A into which the connecting rod is coupled by the big3end bearing main bearings A keep the crankshaft in position in the cylinder block and at the same time allow it to rotate freely

 !t also consists of; crankshaft timing gear A fitted to the front end of the crankshaft camshaft A housed in the camshaft bearings in the cylinder block +al+e mechanism A consisting of a cam follower, push rod, rocker and a +al+e kept closed by a stiff spring =or each cylinder, two of each of the abo+e components are re<uired A one set for the intake function, and one set for the outlet function

 !t is similar to the petrol engine, except that ; 1 The compression ratio is approximately 20;1 compared to a petrol engine which has a compression ratio of about 10;1 2 4n the compression stroke the fuel is inFected and mixes with the compressed air a few degrees before the piston reaches t d c $ The mixture is ignited by the high temperature that results from the higher pressure of the compressed air>fuel on the compression stroke

Types of two-stroke C.I. Engine 1 Engines with ports in the bottom end of the cylinder which are used to sca+enge exhaust gases and admit the fresh air charge 2 Engines where the intake port is in the bottom end of the cylinder and the exhaust port is in the cylinder head The closing and opening of the exhaust port in this case is controlled by poppet +al+es All two3stoke & ! engines are fitted with blowers which force pure air into the cylinder These engines complete their full working cycle within two strokes of the piston

 The cylinder is designed with ports at the side of

the cylinder, more or less at the end of the stroke of the piston The intake ports are designed so that the fresh air charge is directed in a spiral mo+ement towards the cylinder head The exhaust port is cut so that it will open first as the piston mo+es downwards on its stroke Dri+en by the engine, a blower forces air under pressure into the cylinder when the intake port is unco+ered by the piston

 A few degrees before the piston reaches

t d c , fuel is inFected and mixes with the compressed air after which it is ignited &ombustion follows ignition and as a result the temperature is raised which causes the gases to expand The expanding gases force the piston downwards in the cylinder

 1hen the piston has mo+ed through three3<uarters of

its downward stroke, the exhaust port is unco+ered The spent gases, still under pressure, escape through the exhaust port The piston mo+es further downwards and unco+ers the intake port =resh air under pressure from the blower at approximately 1.0 k-a enters the cylinder As a result of the design of the intake port, the spent gases are forced out by the incoming fresh air charge

 As the piston mo+es upwards, it first closes

the intake port and thereafter the exhaust port The piston compresses the fresh air charge to a high pressure and as a result a high temperature is de+eloped The mixture is ignited by the high temperature that results from the higher pressure of the compressed air>fuel on the compression stroke

 The cylinder is designed with only intake

ports which are cut around the whole bottom end of the cylinder 1hen the piston is at b t c , the ports are exposed The cylinder head is e<uipped with two exhaust ports which are controlled by poppet +al+es A camshaft and +al+e mechanism are re<uired to operate the +al+es

 0ust before the piston reaches t d c , fuel is

inFected into the cylinder The fuel mixes with the air and is ignited by the hot, compressed air !t burns and this raises the temperature The high temperature causes the gases to expand which force the piston downwards in the cylinder

 1hen the piston has mo+ed through three3

<uarters of its downward stroke, the exhaust +al+es in the cylinder head are opened and the spent gases, still under pressure, start escaping 1ith slight mo+ement of the piston further downwards, the intake port is exposed =resh air, under pressure from the blower at approximately 1.0 k-a, enters the cylinder The fresh air forces out the spent gases through the exhaust port in the cylinder head

 As the piston mo+es upwards again, the

exhaust +al+es are closed The intake ports are now closed by the piston with the result that the fresh air charge is trapped 1ith the further mo+ement of the piston upwards the air charge is compressed to a high pressure and high temperature de+elops

 Gse sketches to describe the following; 1. The four-stroke compression ignition engine. 2. The operation of the power stroke of the fourstroke C.I. engine. 3. The operation of the Uniflow-type two-stroke engine. . The operation of the port-type two-stroke engine !uring the e"haust an! intake strokes. -g 1#)

 A cylinder block is cast in a single unit and may be either a

single3cylinder or a multi3cylinder block A cylinder block designed for an indirect air3cooled engine contains channels, called water Fackets, through which the coolant is circulated by the water pump &ast iron and aluminium alloy metals are generally used to make cylinder blocks The cylinder block's function is to house the crankshaft, the camshaft and the pistons !t is also a mounting piece for all other components on the inside and outside thereof

1. #ow !oes coolant circulate through the cylin!er $lock% 2. &ame the metals from which cylin!er $locks an! cylin!er hea!s are manufacture!. 3. 'tate the function of the cylin!er $lock.

 !f the engine is indirectly air3cooled, the

cylinder head is also cast as a single unit and contains water Fackets !n the case of direct air3cooled engines, the cylinder head has no water Fackets, but fins on the outside which increase the area subFected to the cooling air &ylinder heads are also manufactured from cast iron or aluminium alloy

 The cylinder head ser+es as a lid for the cylinders so

that the petrol mixture may be compressed in the cylinders without a loss of pressure !n most cases the cylinder head contains a section of the combustion chamber 1ith an o+erhead +al+e engine, the head houses the +al+e mechanism !n the case of the side3+al+e engine, this is the function of the cylinder block The cylinder head also accommodates the spark plugs

1. 'tate the function of the cylin!er hea!. 2. 'tate two ways $y which cylin!er hea!s of !irect an! in!irect air-coole! engines may $e i!entifie!.

 &rankshafts are made from steel alloys with

nickel3chrome and chrome +anadium The crankshaft is the main shaft of the engine !t is housed in the cylinder block in bearing liners The crankshaft is pro+ided with as many crank Fournals as there are cylinders in the engine

 The crankshaft is also pro+ided with counterweights

for the purpose of static and dynamic balancing The flywheel is bolted to the rear of the crankshaft while the crankshaft pulley and the crankshaft gear are fitted to the front The crankshaft gear is for dri+ing the camshaft gear ,teel alloys with nickel3chrome and chrome3 +anadium are used in the manufacture of crankshafts to resist shock

 The function of the crankshaft is to con+ert

the reciprocating mo+ement of the pistons into a rotary mo+ement

Assessment 1. &ame the metal from which crankshafts

are manufacture!. 2. 'tate the function of the crankshaft.

 A piston is a hollow, cylindrical unit, open at one end

and closed at the other The closed end @or upper endD is called the piston crown A piston fits into a +ery accurately machined cylinder with the minimum of clearance The piston contains a hole for fitting the gudgeon pin and groo+es to accommodate the piston rings The number of groo+es is the choice of the designers, but when pistons are replaced, this should be kept in mind

 &ast iron and aluminium alloy are popular

metals used to make pistons

 A piston ser+es as a pump and thereby; causes a +acuum in the cylinder during the intake stroke forces out the burnt gases during the exhaust stroke compresses the petrol mixture in the combustion chamber during the compression stroke A piston also transmits the force due to the

expanding gases to the crankshaft +ia a gudgeon pin and the connecting rod This causes the crankshaft to rotate

1. (hich metals are pistons ma!e from% 2. (hat is the purpose of a piston in an engine%

 -iston rings are applied together with the

piston to act as a pump An a+erage of three piston rings per piston is popular with modern engines, except where high engine performances are re<uired 4n smaller engines usually only two piston rings per piston may be used, but ne+er less than two

 There are two types of piston ring, namely compression

rings and oil control rings The general tendency is to apply all piston compression rings a$o)e the position of the gudgeon pin The oil control ring is applied $elow the gu!geon pin &ompression rings are those nearest the piston crown with the oil control ring further below 1hen three piston rings are used, only one of them is an oil control ring !n the case of two3stroke engines, no oil control rings are applied

 &ast iron is commonly used in the manufacture of piston

rings, although chrome may be added to the first compression rings

Function
The function of the compression ring is to pro+ide for a

gas3tight seal between the piston and the cylinder wall This is so that pressure from abo+e the piston will not escape to the crankcase 4il control rings control the <uantity of oil on the cylinder walls, that is they remo+e excess oil from the cylinder walls but lea+e sufficient behind for lubrication purposes

 'tate the function of the compression an! oil

control rings.

 A gudgeon pin is a hollow, cylindrical obFect which fits

through holes in the piston and the small3end bearing of the connecting rod !n this way the piston is connected to the connecting rod 1hen the gudgeon pin is pressed into the small3end or clamped thereto, the bearing surface is in the piston 1hen the gudgeon pin fits loosely in the small3end, circlips are used in the piston bosses to keep the gudgeon pin in position

 A steel alloy of high <uality is used in the

manufacture of gudgeon pins and they are case3hardened

Function
The gudgeon pin acts as the linkage @crank

and sliderD between the piston and connecting rod

 'tate the function of the gu!geon pin.

 &onnecting rods are manufactured from high

<uality cast steel with chrome3+anadium

 The function of the connecting rod is to connect the

piston with the crankshaft whereby the force exerted on the piston is transmitted to the crankshaft At the one end, the connecting rod has the big3end bearing which is fitted to the crankpin of the crankshaft in bearing liners The other end of the connecting rod is called the small end This end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston by the gudgeon pin The gudgeon pin may fit loosely in the small end or may be press3fitted or clamped

 The camshaft is housed in the cylinder block

except in engines with o+erhead camshafts !n all cases the camshaft is dri+en at half the number of crankshaft re+olutions Except for the bearing Fournals the camshaft contains pear3shaped cams which are responsible for opening the engine +al+es !n most cases the camshaft also contains an eccentric ca for operating the echanical fuel pump, as well as a helical gear for dri+ing the distributor and the oil pump

 An alloy of cast iron, copper and chrome is

commonly used in the manufacture of camshafts

Function
The functions of the camshaft are; to con+ert the rotary mo+ement of the crankshaft in the reciprocating mo+ement of the +al+es to open the +al+es at a pre3determined time to dri+e the distributor, oil pump and mechanical fuel pump

1. 'tate the function of the camshaft. 2. *t which fre+uency ,relati)e to the crankshaft- !oes the camshaft rotate% 3. (hich components are !ri)en $y the camshaft an! how is this possi$le%

 The timing gears comprise the crankshaft

gear and the camshaft gear These gears are found at the front end of the engine The camshaft consists of exactly twice the number of teeth as that on the crankshaft gear This design is necessary so that the camshaft is dri+en at half the number of crankshaft re+olutions

 The timing gears are marked by the

manufacturers These marks are used to determine the +al+e timing 1hen the gears are fitted, care should be taken that the timing marks are opposite each other and in a straight line with the centres of the gears

 The function of the timing chain is to transmit

the rotary mo+ement of the crankshaft to the camshaft !t performs the same function as timing gears 1hen the engine design is such that the timing gears do not mesh directly, a timing chain is applied 4ne disad+antage of this application @of a timing chainD is the increase in wear

 There is also the tendency of the chain to

stretch which results in noisy operation, but this can be limited to a great extent by the application of a tensioner %ote that when the gears mesh directly, the direction of rotation of the two gears is opposite, while the direction of rotation is the same when a timing chain is applied

 5ost modern +ehicles use toothed timing belts

to control the +al+e timing The timing belts operate in the same way as chains do, but run on toothed pulleys instead of sprockets Timing belts ha+e the ad+antage of not re<uiring lubrication and also operate more <uietly than belts and gears They do howe+er need to be replaced more fre<uently to pre+ent breakages and serious engine damage

1. (hat are timing gears use! for% 2. (hy !o manufacturers mark timing gears% 3. (hat is use! in con.unction with timing chains to counteract the effect of chain elongation or stretching% . #ow is the )al)e timing controlle! on mo!ern engines%

!aterial
Hal+e lifters are

manufactured from steel alloys and are case3hardened

 The function of a +al+e lifter is to follow the

shape of the pear3shaped cam on the camshaft by which a reciprocating mo+ement is obtained Hal+e lifters are a+ailable in +arious designs, but the most important aspect is the difference in operation of the o+erhead +al+e engine and of the side3+al+e engine

 4n side3+al+e engines and some engines with o+erhead

camshafts, the +al+e lifter is placed directly between the camshaft and the +al+e stem -ro+ision for the adFustment of +al+e clearance is made on the +al+e lifter This type is therefore known as the adFustable +al+e lifter 4ther types of +al+e lifter are the tubular type, mushroom type, roller type and the hydraulic type, all of them being applied on o+erhead +al+e engines The latter types are applied directly between the camshaft and the pushrod and are not adFustable

 /etween which two components of the si!e-

)al)e engine is the )al)e lifter applie!%

 The pushrod has the simple function of

transmitting the reciprocating mo+ement of the +al+e lifter to the rocker The pushrod is a long, slender metal shaft or rod which is positioned between the +al+e lifter and the rocker on o+erhead +al+e engines The one end is rounded to fit into a recess of e<ual design in the +al+e lifter while the other end contains a round socket in which the ball3 end of the adFusting screw on the rocker fits

1. 'tate the function of the pushro!. 2. 0ake a neat sketch !epicting how the pushro! acts $etween the cams an! rocker arm assem$ly.

 9ockers are mounted on a rocker shaft

There is one rocker to each +al+e in the engine The rocker is placed between the pushrod and the +al+e stem and is therefore applied only on o+erhead +al+e engines The rocker pro+ides for the adFustment of +al+e clearance by means of adFusting screws These adFusting screws may be the self3locking type or lock nuts

!aterial
9ockers are manufactured from superior

<uality steel alloy

Function
The function of the rocker is to transmit the

reciprocating mo+ement of the pushrod to the engine +al+e

1. #ow many rockers are there in a fourcylin!er engine% 2. /etween which two components are rockers applie!% 3. In Chapter 1 you learnt a$out )arious linkages. (hich particular linkage !oes the rocker arm represent%

 !ntake +al+es are manufactured from steel

with a high chrome content while exhaust +al+es are manufactured from silicon3chrome steel to cope with high temperatures Each cylinder in the engine has an intake +al+e and an exhaust +al+e These +al+es can be distinguished from each other by the diameter o+er the +al+e head of the intake +al+e which is usually more than that of the exhaust +al+e

 The +al+e stem fits in a +al+e guide in the cylinder

head in the case of the o+erhead +al+e engine and in the cylinder block in the case of the side3+al+e engine Engine +al+es re<uire +al+e springs to close them and to keep them properly closed to pre+ent the loss of pressure The modern tendency is to indicate the tension of +al+e springs by means of a colour code The +al+e spring is kept onto the +al+e by means of a +al+e spring retainer and two half3moon cotters

!aterial
The +al+e spring is manufactured from a

superior <uality spring steel

Function
Hal+e springs are used to ensure that +al+es

are drawn tightly into their +al+e seats, to ensure a gas3tight seal

1. &ame two types of a!.usting screw which are use! for a!.usting )al)e clearance. 2. #ow can intake )al)es $e !istinguishe! from e"haust )al)es% 3. &ame the metals from which engine )al)es are manufacture!. . 'tate the function of engine )al)es. 2. 'tate the function of the )al)e spring.

 The exhaust manifold is manufactured from

cast iron and the intake manifold from cast iron or aluminium alloy

 All internal combustion engines re<uire at least one intake

and one exhaust manifold which are two separate components 5ounting of the manifolds depends on the engine design The two manifolds may be bolted together before they are mounted as a unit on the engine, or bolted to the engine independently of each other A H3type engine uses two independent exhaust manifolds and one intake manifold The carburettor is bolted to the intake manifold while the exhaust pipes and silencer are connected to the exhaust manifold

 The functions of the intake manifold are to

con+ey the petrol mixture from the carburettor to the +arious engine cylinders and to promote +aporisation of the petrol mixture before admitting it to the cylinders The function of the exhaust manifold is to direct the exhaust gases from the +arious engine cylinders to a common point

1. &ame the metals from which manifol!s are manufacture!. 2. 'tate the function of manifol!s.

 Gaskets are placed between two surfaces to

pre+ent leakage of the following substances; gases, water, oil and petrol Gaskets are +ery important for application between castings which are temporarily bolted together %o specific design can be referred to because the gaskets +ary from engine to engine Gaskets are applied to obtain gas3tight and oil3tight Foints

 5anufacturers usually supply a complete set of

gaskets for each type of engine, but they may also be made by a motor mechanic 4ne of the materials used in the manufacture of gaskets is cork which, in some cases, is impregnated with a synthetic li<uid rubber to make it less brittle 4ther materials are solid synthetic rubber or neoprene rubber, paper, aluminium alloy and thin copper sheet metal !n the case of the latter, two plates are applied with asbestos between them

 The following materials are used; cylinder head gasket asbestos coated with copper intake and e"haust anifold gaskets treated asbestos oil pan and rocker co#er gaskets cork or rubber other treated fibre $#ellu oid).

 A seal pre+ents the leakage of water, oil or

grease !t also pre+ents dust or water from penetrating from the outside 1hen re+ol+ing shafts on the inside of an engine are extended to the outside, it is necessary to seal off the shaft against the casting to pre+ent losing oil This is the main function of the seal

 The most important positions for the

application of seals are at the ends of the crankshaft ,eals may comprise a metal housing, with a spring3loaded neoprene rubber seal, asbestos impregnated with graphite or e+en felt being applied

 ,eals are used for fuel pumps,

crankshafts, gearboxes, rear axles and front wheels

1. 'tate the function of gaskets. 2. &ame the materials from which gaskets are manufacture!. 3. &ame four places where gaskets are use!. . 'tate the function of oil seals. 2. &ame three types of oil seals. 3. &ame four places where oil seals are use!. 4. 'tate the most important positions for oil seals on an engine.

Carburettor
A carburettor has three main functions; to i" the fuel and air in the proper ratio to suit the particular circu stances% for e"a ple% cold starting to #aporise the fuel i"ture so that it can burn better to control the speed of the engine by increasing or decreasing the fuel i"ture.

 1. 'tate the functions of the car$uretor. 2. 'ketch a car$urettor an! in!icate on the

sketch how it operates.

 The ignition coil transforms the 12 +olts of the

battery to the high +oltage re<uired @between 1" 000 +olts and 22 000 +oltsD to make the current Fump the spark plug gap The coil has two circuits, a primary circuit and a secondary circuit

 5aterials used for spark plugs are; electrode A nickel alloy isolator A ceramic casing A steel

Spark plug
The function of the spark plug is to pro+ide a

gap in the combustion chamber o+er which the high +oltage spark can Fump in order to ignite the airAfuel mixture at the end of the compression stroke

 'tate the function of the spark plug.

 These materials are used for distributors; distributor slee+e A aluminium alloy steel alloy distributor dri+ing shaft with cams contact3breaker plate A soft steel contact breaking points A tungsten rotor A synthetic material distributor co+er A synthetic material

 The distributor distributes the high +oltage

spark from the coil to the different spark plugs in the correct order, and at the right time

 The starter motor makes the crankshaft rotate

at a pre3determined speed so that ignition of the airAfuel mixture can take place, in order to start the engine

 An alternator generates electrical power in order

to charge the battery and keep the battery charged !t should not be used to charge a flat battery

 'tate the function of the following auto-

electrical components5 1. ignition coils 2. spark plugs 3. !istri$utors . starter motors 2. alternators

 *earings are made of bron7e or brass

with a working surface of a thin layer of white metal or an alloy consisting of lead, antimony and radium *all bearings may also be used in engine components

 A bearing pro+ides a reduced3friction

surface on which the wearing face of a rotating part rests, for example crankshaft bearings, gudgeon pin bushes and camshaft bearings

 *ushes are usually made from

phosphor bron7e which is porous and impregnated with oil to reduce friction

1. (hat is /a$$itt metal% 2. 6escri$e the material that is use! for $ushes an! state why it is use!.

=ly wheels are made of cast iron and steel

 The fly wheel contains a ring gear,

clutch plate and pressure plate The flywheel absorbs energy during the power stroke to help the engine run during the three idle strokes

 &ame the functions of the flywheel.

 The fuel pump pro+ides fuel from the tank

to the carburettor at a pre3determined pressure and at all engine speeds 5echanical fuel pumps are operated by the rotation of the camshaft Electrical fuel pumps are usually used on modern +ehicles with fuel inFection engines

 6escri$e the function of the fuel pump.

 The water pump is mounted in front of the

engine between the block and the radiator

w aterpump w m+

 The water pump circulates the coolant

continuously within the engine block and radiator to ensure that the coolant temperature stays e+en This is necessary to a+oid o+erheating around the combustion chambers and cylinders

 (hy are water pumps important components

in engine cooling systems%

 The first attempt to make practical use of steam

seems to ha+e been made by Heros of Alexandria in ancient times He was the first person to describe the principles of a steam engine in 100 years AD Heros is also celebrated for other ama7ing de+ices, one of which powered the self3opening doors of a temple He lit a fire beneath an altar that caused the air to warm and expand, increasing the pressure in a water reser+oir below
A5AI!%G D449 w m+

 This forced water through a siphon into a hanging

bucket The descent of the bucket pulled on ropes which opened the doors 1hen the fire was extinguished, the water returned into the +essel and the counter3weight shut the doors A steam engine is based on the fact that steam made by heating water occupies more than a thousand times as much space as the water from which it comes

 The expansion of water into steam exerts a

force !t is this force that is being used when a steam engine performs work The water to make steam is heated in a boiler Any kind of fuel A coal, oil, gas, wood, or coke A may be burned to boil the water The resulting steam flows through a pipe into the engine itself

 ,ince the fuel is burned outside the engine, a

steam engine is called an external combustion engine 1e will now discuss three in+entors of the steam engine, namely; 1 Thomas ,a+ery @1".0A1#1.D 2 Thomas %ewcomen @1""$A1#2(D $ 0ames 1att @1#$"A1)1(D

 Thomas ,a+ery was an English military engineer and in+entor

who in 1"(), patented the first crude steam engine, based on Denis -apin's Digester or pressure cooker of 1"#( Thomas ,a+ery had been working on sol+ing the problem of pumping water out of coal mines His machine consisted of a closed +essel filled with water into which steam under pressure was introduced This forced the water upwards and out of the mine shaft A cold water sprinkler was then used to condense the steam This created a +acuum which sucked more water out of the mine shaft through a bottom +al+e

 Thomas %ewcomen was the English blacksmith who

in+ented the atmospheric steam engine, an impro+ement o+er Thomas ,a+ery's pre+ious design The %ewcomen steam engine used the force of atmospheric pressure to do the work Thomas %ewcomen's engine pumped steam into a cylinder The steam was then condensed by cold water which created a +acuum on the inside of the cylinder The resulting atmospheric pressure operated a piston, creating downward strokes

 !n %ewcomen's engine the intensity of pressure was

not limited by pressure of the steam, unlike what Thomas ,a+ery had patented in 1"() !n 1#12, Thomas %ewcomen together with 0ohn &alley built their first engine on top of a water3filled mine shaft and used it to pump water out of the mine The %ewcomen engine was the predecessor to the 1att engine and it was one of the most interesting pieces of technology de+eloped during the 1#00s

 0ames 1att was a ,cottish in+entor and

mechanical engineer, born in Greenock He was renowned for his impro+ement of the steam engine !n 1#"., 0ames 1att, while working for the Gni+ersity of Glasgow, was assigned the task of repairing a %ewcomen engine, which was deemed inefficient but the best steam engine of its time That started the in+entor working on se+eral impro+ements to %ewcomen's design

 5ost notable was 1att's 1#"( patent for a separate

condenser connected to a cylinder by a +al+e Gnlike %ewcomen's engine, 1att's design had a condenser that could be cool while the cylinder was hot 1att's engine soon became the dominant design for all modern steam engines and helped bring about the !ndustrial 9e+olution A unit of power called the 1att was named after 0ames 1att The symbol for watts is 1, and it is e<ual to 1J#8" of a horsepower

 !n a modern piston steam engine, steam from

the boiler enters a thick3walled metal chamber called a steam chest There are three holes, or ports, in the floor of the steam chest The centre port opens into a pipe, the steam outlet or exhaustB the other two ports, one on either side of the centre port, open into another thick3walled metal chamber, the cylinder

 5o+ing back and forthacross the floor of the steam

chest is a rectangular box that has no bottom This is the D3slide +al+e, which always co+ers the steam outlet port and alternately co+ers one of the two intake ports ,team from the boiler rushing through one of the intake ports strikes one side of the piston and forces it towards the opposite end of the cylinder The mo+ement of the piston is called a stroke

 As the piston mo+es, the D3slide also mo+es

so that, when the piston reaches the end of its stroke, the port through which the steam entered the cylinder is closed At the same moment, the D3slide +al+e opens the other port so that incoming steam is guided to the other side of the piston ,team striking this side pushes the piston back towards the opposite end of the cylinder

 As the D3slide +al+e allows steam to enter

alternately one intake port and then the other, this +al+e also keeps open a channel to the steam outlet, where the steam that has Fust finished pushing the piston escapes The outlet may allow the steam to escape into the air, or it may channel the steam to a chamber called the condenser There the steam is cooled and condenses into water, which may be sent back to the boiler where it is again heated into steam

 The process of entering steam pushing the piston back

and forth, the mo+ement of the D3slide +al+e, and the escape of steam first from one side of the piston and then the other, goes on continually as long as steam enters the chest at pressure that is high enough A rod, called the piston rod, is attached to one side of the piston The piston rod passes through a steam3tight seal at one end of the cylinder As the piston mo+es back and forth, the piston rod mo+es in and out of the cylinder

 The outer end of the rod is attached to a de+ice

called a cross3head, which mo+es within a wide metal tube extending outwards from the cylinder The crosshead transmits the mo+ement of the piston to a series of de+ices that turn a large hea+y wheel, the flywheel The back3and3forth motion of the piston is translated into the rotary motion of the flywheel !f the shaft of the flywheel is attached to a machine, the energy in the fuel is finally changed into work performed by the machine

 Attached to the turning axle of the flywheel is

the eccentric, a thick metal disc with an off3 centre hole through which passes the axle of the flywheel The eccentric translates the rotary motion of the axle into back3and3forth motion A rod transmits this motion through a steam3 tight seal to the D3slide +al+e inside the steam chest, mo+ing the +al+e back and forth o+er the steam ports

1. &ame the person who first e"plaine! the principles of the steam engine. 2. &ame three in)entors of the steam engine an! state the years in which they li)e!. 3. 6efine a stroke of a steam engine. . (hat is the function of the con!enser of the steam engine% 2. 6efine the function of a flywheel. 3. 6efine the function of the eccentric on the steam engine. 4. Use a !rawing to illustrate the operation of a simple steam engine with a piston.