Lecture 3.

Movement Three principal kinds of movement:

ameboid ciliary and flagellar muscular

Ameboid Movement
amoebae and other unicellular forms white blood cells embryonic mesenchyme cells other mobile cells

Fig. 11.5a

Fig. 11.5c

Ameboid Movement
Consensus model to explain extension and withdrawal of pseudopodia and ameboid crawling: ectoplasm and endoplasm hyaline cap appears endoplasm flows toward hyaline cap actin subunits attached to regulatory, ABPs endoplasm fountains out to the periphery actin subunits released and polymerized microfilaments cross-linked Ca2+ activate actin-severing protein myosin associate with and pull on microfilaments

Ciliary and Flagellar Movement

Cilia
minute, hairlike, motile processes occur in large numbers ciliate protistans found in all major groups of animals move organisms through aquatic environment propel fluids and materials across surfaces

Ciliary and Flagellar Movement

Flagella
whiplike present singly or in small numbers occur in unicellular eukaryotes animal spermatozoa sponges

 both cilia and flagella have the same ultrastructure

a core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane 9 + 2 pattern flexible wheels of proteins connect outer doublets to each other and to the core outer doublets are connected by motor proteins anchored in the cell by a basal body

 The bending of cilia and flagella is driven by the arms of a motor protein, dynein.
Addition to dynein of a phosphate group from ATP and its removal causes conformation changes in the protein. Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release the outer microtubules. Protein cross-links limit sliding and the force is expressed as bending.

 A flagellum has an undulatory movement

force is generated parallel to the flagellums axis

 Cilia move more like oars with alternating power and recovery strokes
generate force perpendicular to the cilias axis

Invertebrate Muscle
Bivalve molluscan muscles
2 kinds of fibers: fast muscle fibers = striated, can contract rapidly smooth muscle, capable of slow, long-lasting contractions

Invertebrate Muscle
Insect flight muscles (fibrillar muscle)
wings of small flies operate at 1000 beats/sec limited extensibility; shorten only slightly

Structure of Striated Muscle

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Sliding Filament Model

Actin filaments at both ends of sarcomere one end of each filament attached to a Z-plate at one end of the sarcomere other end suspended in sarcoplasm Myosin filaments suspended in between Z-plates myosin filaments contain cross-bridges which pull the actin filaments inward causes Z-plates to move toward each other shortens sarcomere sarcomeres stacked together in series and cause myofiber to shorten Working muscles require ATP myosin breaks down ATP sustained exercise requires cellular respiration regenerates ATP

Muscle Innervation
Neuromuscular junction
the synaptic contact between a nerve fiber and a muscle fiber nerve impulses bring about the release of a neurotransmitter that cross the synaptic cleft signals the muscle fiber to contract

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http://www.unc.edu/~malloyk/

Spinal cord

Motor unit 1

Motor unit 2 Synaptic terminals

Nerve Motor neuron cell body Motor neuron axon

Muscle Muscle fibers Tendon

Human Muscular System

Skeletal muscles attached to the skeleton by cable-like fibrous connective tissue called tendons arranged in antagonistic pairs can only contract, cannot push when one muscle contracts, it stretches its antagonistic partner a muscle at rest exhibits tone (minimal contraction) a muscle in tetany is at maximum sustained contraction

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Muscle Performance
slow oxidative fibers (red muscles) for slow, sustained contractions without fatigue contain extensive blood supply high density of mitochondria abundant stored myoglobin important in maintaining posture in terrestrial vertebrates

Muscle Performance
2 kinds of fast fibers fast glycolytic fiber (white muscles) lacks efficient blood supply pale in color function anaerobically fatigue rapidly fast oxidative fiber extensive blood supply high density of mitochondria and myoglobin function aerobically for rapid, sustained activities

Energy for Contraction

ATP, immediate source of energy glucose broken down during aerobic metabolism glycogen stores can supply glucose muscles have creatine phosphate, an energy reserve slow and fast oxidative fibers rely heavily on glucose and oxygen fast glycolytic fibers rely on anaerobic glycolysis muscles incur oxygen debt during anaerobic glycolysis