EMISSION OF SULPHUR OXIDES FROM SUGAR INDUSTRIES

What are Sulphur Oxides?

SULPHUR OXIDES (SOx)
SOx refers to all sulphur oxides, the two major ones being sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3). Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with a pungent, irritating odour and taste. It is highly soluble in water forming weakly acidic sulphurous acid. When sulphur dioxide combines with the oxygen (O2) in the air some sulphur trioxide is slowly formed. Sulphur trioxide rapidly combines with water to produce sulphuric acid. The life span of sulphur oxides in the atmosphere is from 4 to 10 days.

Sulphur dioxide is used in many industrial processes such as chemical preparation, refining, pulpmaking and solvent extraction. Sulphur dioxide is also used in the preparation and preservation of food because it prevents bacterial growth and the browning of fruit.0 SOURCES OF SULFUR OXIDES Natural sources of sulphur dioxide include volcanoes and hot springs. Sulphur dioxide is also formed by the oxidation of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), a toxic gas that smells like rotten eggs. Oxidation occurs when hydrogen sulphide combines with the oxygen in air. Hydrogen sulphide is released by marshes and other places on land and in oceans where biological decay is taking place. Hydrogen sulphide is frequently found with natural gas. These deposits are referred to as sour gas.

Man-made sources of sulphur dioxide include sour gas processing, oil sands production, coal combustion, ore refining, chemical manufacturing and other fossil fuel processing and burning.

China is the world's leader of sulphur dioxide emissions, up to 90 per cent ...

Canada's sulphur dioxide emissions are about 15 percent of those of the United States, and Alberta's emissions are about 15 percent of Canada's. Of the 626 kilotonnes of sulphur dioxide emitted in Alberta in 1988, sour gas plants accounted for 38 percent, oil sands 29 percent and coal-fired power plants 16 percent. Sulphur trioxide is generally emitted with sulphur dioxide at about one to five percent of the sulphur dioxide emission rate.

SUGAR INDUSTRY
Process Description: The processing of sugar from sugar cane takes place in two stages, namely milling and refining. >Seasonal sugar milling activities include the manufacturing of raw sugar (crystal and syrup) from sugar cane. >The predominant extraction method is the milling of shredded cane between rollers, which is then counter-currently contacted with water to ensure maximum possible extraction of juice. >The other milling stages in sugar manufacturing include clarification, evaporation, crystallisation, separation and drying. Molasses is a by-product of the milling operation.

Sugar refining activities include the manufacture of white granulated sugar, brown sugar, liquid sugar and syrups from raw sugar. Icing sugar can be made by grinding white granulated sugar.

Refining is a further purification stage of raw crystal sugar which includes de-colourisation, crystallisation, separation and drying stages to produce sugars for consumption

AIR EMISSIONS
>Boiler emissions are the major source of air pollution in sugar mills. Boilers are operated under three different conditions: fuel oil, bagasse or mixed fuel (combination of fuel oil and bagasse). The choice of fuel significantly impacts the emission.

>Sulphitation process in sugar refining is also responsible for generating Sox gases. Other
gaseous emissions are hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide.

SUGAR INDUSTRY AND SULPHUR DIOXIDE (sulfitation)

INTRODUCTION:
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) has been used for centuries to minimize color in food processing and fruit and vegetable storage. In the sugar industry, it is used routinely by sugar beet processors to reduce and prevent color formation in white refined sugar. Sugarcane processors throughout the world use SO2 to produce plantation white sugars. Sulphur dioxide has traditionally been used in food processing and produce storage to minimize color formation due to browning reactions associated with amino acids interacting with invert sugars in the Maillard reaction. Sugar beet processors routinely use sulphur dioxide in process streams for the same purpose. Among sugar cane processors worldwide there is mixed interest in usage of sulfitation. In the United States, sulfitation has rarely been used in cane raw sugar factories since the 1950's. Today, there is renewed interest in the effectiveness of sulfur dioxide as a color retardant as many US factories are considering the production of high quality low color raw sugar to be sold as a food grade sugar. The purpose of sulfiting purified and clarified thin beet juices are: 1) to control juice color formation 2) to improve the boiling properties of the juices; and 3) reduce the excess alkalinity. Two methods of sulfuring are: 1) by sulfur stove, burning elemental sulfur for production of sulfite and 2) bubbling sulfur dioxide through process streams. Also produced during these processes is the undesired sulfate ionthat can interfere with crystallization causing an increase in molasses purity and production. The oxidation of sulfite to sulfate is greatly retarded as the sugar concentration is increased. Sulfitation can control juice color by interfering with chromophoric molecular groups include carbonyl (ketones), carbonyl

(aldehydes), carboxyl, and amido. Color compounds in cane and beet sugar products include naturally occurring pigments along with a large heterogeneous variation of color compounds produced during processing. It has been estimated that for a 98.5o pol raw sugar, colorants account for approximately 15-20 % of the weight of non sugars. In granulated refined sugar the estimate is approximately 30 ppm (Clarke and Godshall, 1988). In the cane sugar factory, the major role of sulfur dioxide has been to make white sugar rather than raw sugar through inhibition of color forming reactions. This is achieved by additionofSO2 to the alkenic double bond in an ",$- unsaturated carbonyl intermediate as well as to the carbonyl group, which yields $-sulfonated aldehydes that are of comparatively low reactivity in reactions leading to the production of browning compounds by the Maillard reaction and degradation of invert sugars. Sulfur dioxide also has the ability to inhibit or retard enzymatic browning reactions. During processing and storage at elevated temperatures, sugar products will darken. All industries that use sugar products are in turn susceptible to color changes in their products which may or may not be desirable. When cane and beet juices are heated and limed during clarification, invert sugar disappears and the color of juices increases with the amount of lime added. Much of this color is bound to calcium precipitate in the defecation process.

Color changes additionally occur during heating and evaporation processes, since the juices are exposed to continual heating (70-75o C) over several hours at slightly alkaline pH in the beet industry and slightly acid pH in the cane industry. The higher the alkalinity of clarified beet juice, the greater the color increase. The color of clarified cane juice also increases during evaporation and crystallization even though it is kept on the slightly acid side.

SULPHITATION
Sulphitation processes are subject to almost as many modifications as simple defecation. The variations may include the following:
>modifications of the sequence of addition of lime and SO2 (liming first, sulphiting first, simultaneous addition of lime and gas, fractional procedures); >temperature modifications (sulphiting cold or hot, stepwise heating); and >addition of reagents (batch, continuous, with either manual or automatic control). Obviously these variables permit a large series of combinations, and only the most commonly used are outlined here.

1.Cold Sulphitation
The cold raw juice is pumped through a tower or box with a counter-current of SO2 to absorb as much gas as possible (acidity 3.0-4.0 ml 0.1 N alkali for 10 ml of juice; pH 4.0 or below). Liming to slight acidity (pH about 6.5) is followed by heating, settling, and decanting as in the defecation process.

Evaporation to a thin syrup follows, and the syrup is settled for 6-24 h before vacuum pan boiling. One boiling, yielding a near-white sugar that is heavily washed in the centrifugal, is frequently followed by a second boiling to a raw sugar. The "boil-back" molasses is allowed to settle for several weeks before it is placed on the market. The success of the process is largely dependent on the quality and price of this molasses. Sulfitation can also be carried out by injecting SO2 (industrial liquid SO2 in cylinders) into the cold raw juice to a level of about 400 ppm SO2. This is for the production of raw sugar and A molasses. The A molasses is inverted to yield a sucrose-invert ratio of about 1:1, giving a total sugar of 65% at 80 Brix, with an SO2 level of 30-40 ppm.

2. Sulphitation After Liming

This process is termed alkaline sulphitation as opposed to acid sulphitation previously described. It uses about 8 gal (30 litre) of 26 Brix milk of lime per 100 gal (378 litre) of juice giving a large excess of lime. Sulphitation is then carried out to about pH 7.5 producing a heavy precipitate that may be removed with settling and decantation.

Heavier liming (10-12 gal, 38 - 45 litre), will result in a precipitate that permit filter-pressing. After evaporation the syrup is cooled and sulphited to slight acidity (pH 6.5). Treating diffusion juice with lime and then sulphitation decreases the colour of syrup, raw sugar, and refined sugar by 25% 46% and 35% respectively The filterability is improved and molasses purity is lower, giving better sugar recovery

3. Hot Sulphitation
Hot sulphitation serves to reduce the solubility of calcium-sulphite, which is more soluble at low temperatures, the minimum solubility is at about 75C (167 F). The juice is first heated to this temperature then sulphited and limed boiled, and settled. Harloff's process is a hot treatment procedure in which the juice is heated to 75 C and the lime and SO2 are added simultaneously in such a way as to maintain the reaction acid to phenolphthalein and alkaline to litmus (pH about 7.4-7.8), except toward the end, when a quantity of lime is added to attain a strongly alkaline reaction (pH 10+), after which the sulphitation is completed to neutrality to litmus (pH about 7.2). As in all other similar processes, the juice is finally brought to boiling temperatures in juice heaters and settled.

4. Continuous Sulphitation
Continuous sulphitation means the continuous addition of SO2 and lime to the constantly flowing stream of juice. Marches shows many different procedures with diagrams indicating construction details, methods of lime and gas addition, baffles to ensure proper circulation and other details. Many of the continuous liming processes may have different fractional procedures, but are not in general practice.

5. Sulphitation of Syrup
Sulphiting the syrup leaving the evaporators gives a sugar of higher and more regular quality than juice sulphitation alone. The syrup density is lower than in ordinary defecation processes, 55 Brix against 65 Brix or higher Sulphited syrup is usually maintained at a distinct acid reaction, pH 6.1 - 6.5.

BIOMASS (BAGASSE)
Biomass is organic matter which can be converted into energy. Common examples of biomass include crops for energy, crop residues, wood waste and animal manure. Bagasse is a solid waste product associated with sugar mills. Previously, bagasse was burned as means of solid waste disposal. However, as the cost of fuel oil, natural gas, and electricity have increased, the definition of bagasse has changed from refuse to a fuel. Bagasse is a fuel of varying composition, consistency, and heating value. These characteristics depend on the climate, type of soil upon which the cane is grown, variety of cane, harvesting method, amount of cane washing, and the efficiency of the milling plant. In general, bagasse has a heating value between 3,000 and 4,000 British thermal units per pound (Btu/lb) on a wet, as-fired basis. Most bagasse has a moisture content between 45 and 55 percent by weight. .

POWER COGENERATION IN SUGAR MILLS

Sugar Cane

Sugar Mill

Sugar

Juice 73%

Bagasse 27%

Power and Steam

Fuel

Excess Power

Bagasse Storage

New Power House

National Grid

FUEL CHARACTERISTICS OF SUGAR INDUSTRY:

COMBUSTION OF BAGASSE:
Bagasse is a fuel of varying composition, consistency, and heating value. These characteristics depend on the climate, type of soil upon which the cane is grown, variety of cane, harvesting method, amount of cane washing, and the efficiency of the milling plant. In general, bagasse has a heating value between 1,600 and 2,200 kcal/kg (3,000 and 4,000 Btu/lb) on a wet, as-fired basis. Most bagasse has a moisture content between 45 and 55 percent by weight. The lower bagasse moisture contents are generally found in Hawaii. The sulfur and nitrogen contents of bagasse are generally near or below 0.1 weight percent with ash contents generally less than 2 weight percent, as fired. Table 2-1 shows a typical bagasse composition for a Florida sugar mill.

BOILER TYPES:
Fuel cells, horseshoe boilers, and spreader stoker boilers are used to combust bagasse. Horseshoe boilers and fuel cells differ in the shapes of their furnace area but in other respects are similar in design and operation. In these boilers (most common among older plants), bagasse is gravity-fed through chutes and piles up on a refractory hearth. Primary and overfire combustion air flows through ports in the furnace walls; burning begins on the surface pile. Many of 2-x x these units have dumping hearths that permit ash removal while the unit is operating. In more-recently built sugar mills, bagasse is burned in spreader stoker boilers. Bagasse feed to these boilers enters the furnace through a fuel chute and is spread pneumatically or mechanically across the furnace, where part of the fuel burns while in suspension. Simultaneously, large pieces of fuel are spread in a thin, even bed on a stationary or moving grate. The flame over the grate radiates heat back to the fuel to aid combustion. The combustion area of the furnace is lined with heat exchange tubes (waterwalls). Figure 2-2 shows a schematic of a representative bagasse-fired spreader stoker boiler with a steam generating capacity of approximately 52,000 kg/hr (115,000 lb/hr).

COMBUSTION THEORY:
The complete combustion of bagasse can be thought of as occurring in two stages:
>Primary combustion. >Secondary combustion.

Primary combustion refers to the physical and chemical changes occurring on the fuel bed.
It consists of drying, devolatilization, ignition, and burning of the bagasse.

Secondary combustion refers to the oxidation of the gases and particulate matter released by
primary combustion. Secondary combustion is aided by high temperature, sufficient air and turbulence in the gas stream. The turbulence must be intense and last long enough to ensure adequate mixing at elevated temperatures.

EMISSIONS FROM COMBUSTION OF BAGASSE AS FUEL

The most significant pollutant emitted by bagasse-fired boilers is particulate matter, caused by the turbulent movement of combustion gases with respect to the burning bagasse and resultant ash. Emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are lower than conventional fossil fuels due to the characteristically low levels of sulfur and nitrogen associated with bagasse. Boiler operating procedures can influence uncontrolled emissions from bagasse-fired boilers. First, like other waste-fired boilers, bagasse boilers may use auxiliary fuels for start-up. Because fuel oil is usually the start-up fuel, the initial sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions are higher than when bagasse alone is fired. Most bagasse boilers may cofire an auxiliary fuel (normally fuel oil or natural gas) at times to produce the total energy needed for the facility to sustain good combustion with wet bagasse. As is the case during startup, combined oil and bagasse firing will increase SO2 and Nox emissions. Auxiliary fuel is used whenever additional heat input is required. If the supply of bagasse to the boiler is interrupted, auxiliary fuel will be used to provide up to 100 percent of the heat input of the boiler. During these periods, SO2 and Nox emissions will increase.

How Are Oxides Of Sulphur Harmful To The Environment?

Sulphur oxides pollute the environment in both wet and dry depositions. Dry depositions usually affect close to the source. Wet depositions turn the atmospheric water vapor to acid. They are carried thousands of kilometers away from the source by air currents.

When sulphur dioxide rise into the air they dissolve into clouds and form acids. Then they fall back to earth as acid rain. This rain corrodes metal railings and stonework on buildings. Even unpolluted rain is acid because of the presence of carbon dioxide gas in the air. This gas dissolves with water to form carbonic acid. It has a pH of 5.6 (pure water has a pH of 7.0).

Oxides of sulphur emitted from the burning of fossil fuels form sulphuric acid. The pH level of this acid is around 4.0. The primary sources of these gases are power stations, industrial boilers and vehicles. Oxides of sulfur are released mainly from vehicles without catalytic converters. These gases start causing pollution as soon as they are formed. Sulphur dioxide damages the leaves and prevents chlorophyll formation. It causes stones on building to crumble and metal work to be dissolved.

Health Effects Of Sulphur Oxides - SOx

Exposure to sulfur dioxide in the ambient air has been associated with reduced lung function, increased incidence of respiratory symptoms and diseases, irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, and premature mortality. Children, the elderly, and those already suffering from respiratory ailments, such as asthmatics, are especially at risk. Health impacts appear to be linked especially to brief ex-posures to ambient concentrations above 1,000 g/m3 (acute exposures measured over 10 minutes). Some epidemiologic studies, however, have shown an association between relatively low annual mean levels and excess mortality.

It is not clear whether long-term effects are related simply to annual mean values or to repeated exposures to peak values.
Health effects attributed to sulfur oxides are due to exposure to sulfur dioxide, sulfate aerosols, and sulfur dioxide adsorbed onto particulate matter. Alone, sulfur dioxide will dissolve in the watery fluids of the upper respiratory system and be absorbed into the bloodstream. Sulfur diox ide reacts with other substances in the atmosphere to form sulfate aerosols. Since most sulfate aerosols are part of PM 2.5 (fine particulate matter, with an aerodynamic diameter of lesst han 2.5 microns), they may have an important role in the health impacts associated with fine particulates. However, sulfate aerosols can be transported long distances through the atmosphere before deposition occurs. Average sulfate aerosol concentrations are about 40% of average fine particulate levels in regions where fuels with high sulfur content are commonly used. Sulfur dioxide adsorbed on particles can be carried deep into the pulmonary system. Therefore, reducing concentrations of particulate matter may also reduce the health impacts of sulfur dioxide. Acid aerosols affect respiratory and sensory functions.

CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS OF SULFUR OXIDES

Sulphur Removal During Combustion
A number of technologies to prevent the production and release of SO2 during combustion have been developed over the past decade, but very few have achieved wide commercial application to date. The most developed are the Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC) process and the integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) system. This process involves the combustion of coal in a bed of inert material such as sand, with air being blown up from beneath the bed at high velocities. As velocity increases individual particles begin to be forced upwards until they reach a point at which they remain suspended in the air stream. The bed in this state behaves like a liquid and can be described as fluidised. Tubes containing water are immersed in the bed to absorb the generated heat (this water is converted to steam which is used to drive the steam turbine and thus produces electricity). The fluidised movement within the combustion chamber results in a greater heat transfer efficiency to the water filled tubes and therefore operating temperatures are lower than in a conventional system. SO2 emissions can be controlled in this system by adding a sorbent (a substance used to absorb any SO2 present, for example lime or limestone) to the bed of inert material. The limestone effectively absorbs the SO2 as it is released from the coal and retains it within the ash, which is removed regularly. The low combustion temperatures allow efficient combustion to take place without causing the ash to soften, thereby allowing easy removal of the ash containing the absorbed SO2.

The FBC can achieve in the region of 80 - 90% SO2 removal. Two main disadvantages of this system are firstly the large quantities of sorbent required (approximately twice that of an FGD system (see later) to achieve the same SO2 removal), and secondly the large quantities of strongly alkaline waste produced, which is generally disposed of in landfill.
This process does not require the addition of a sorbent. Instead the coal is gasified under pressure with a mixture of air and steam. The resulting gas is expanded through a gas turbine to produce electricity. The waste heat from the gas turbine is then passed through a second steam turbine, the second stage of the combined cycle process, again producing electricity. As the coal is converted to gas the sulphur present is converted into hydrogen sulphide which can be easily removed and sold for use within the chemical industry. Gas cleaning can be integrated into the gas production process, and emissions can be reduced by more than 99%. Also very little waste is produced. This system has not been adopted for use in the UK because the success of the technology has not been sufficiently proven.

Removal of Sulphur after Combustion FGD

Emissions of SO2 generated during the combustion of fossil fuels can be reduced by treating the flue gases before they are emitted into the atmosphere via the stack; this is termed Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD). Flue gas desulphurisation systems can be classified as either Regenerable or Non-regenerable.

This process is the most globally used FGD system. This system is relatively simple: crushed limestone / lime is mixed with water to form a slurry which is then sprayed into the sulphur containing flue gases. The sorbent reacts with the SO2 to form an aqueous slurry of calcium sulphite. Compressed air blown into the slurry oxidises the calcium sulphite to produce calcium sulphate. This product is then treated to remove excess water and either sold to the building trade or disposed of as landfill. SO2 removal can be in the region of 90% Within the spray dry system, a slurry of alkali sorbent, usually slaked lime, is injected into the flue gases in a fine spray. The heat from the flue gases causes the water to evaporate, cooling the gases as it does so. The SO2 present reacts with the drying sorbent to form a solid reaction product, with no waste water. The seawater scrubbing process exploits the natural alkalinity of seawater to absorb acidic gases. Flue gases are contained in an absorption tower where they flow counter current to seawater. The heat of the flue gas causes the seawater to be heated and the gases cooled. During this process SO2 is absorbed by the seawater, before passing to a water treatment plant where further seawater is added to increase the pH. Air is supplied to oxidise the absorbed SO2 to sulphate and to saturate the seawater with oxygen. The seawater is then discharged to the sea. This system is a simple and inherently reliable one with low capital and operational costs, which can remove up to 99% of SO2, with no disposal of waste to land. However, heavy metals and chlorides are present in the water released to the sea. A third FGD process is the Wellman-Lord process, which can be divided into two main stages. 1) Absorption: the hot flue gases are passed through a pre-scrubber where ash, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride and SO3 are removed. The gases are then cooled and fed into the absorption tower. A saturated solution of sodium sulphite is then sprayed into the top of the absorber onto the flue gases; the sodium sulphite reacts with the SO2 forming sodium bisulphite. The concentrated bisulphate solution is collected and passed to an evaporation system for regeneration. 2) Regeneration: the sodium bisulphite is broken down, using steam, to release the sodium sulphite, which is recycled back to the flue gases. The remaining product - the released SO2 - is converted to elemental sulphur, sulphuric acid or liquid SO2. This system offers a number of advantages over alternative systems, the main one being that the sorbent is regenerated during the combustion process and is continuously recycled.

CONCLUSION
There are various methods for reducing the atmospheric SO2 emissions from power generation. Each method has both advantages and limitations related to cost, removal efficiency, operational experience and waste products produced. Therefore the choice of control technology should be based on the criteria required for each individual combustion plant.

REFERENCES
1 SULPHUR OXIDES (SOx) dwb.unl.edu/teacher/nsf/c09/c09links/www.casahome.org/sulphur.htm 2. http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot212.nsf/veritydisplay/0e668870c18d6ed0852576ab00772b ef/$file/a-n-sugar_ph_sulfitation_a.pdf 3.Emission Estimation Technique Manual for Sugar Milling and Refining 10 August 2001 First published in February 1999 Version 1.1 10 August 2001 ISBN: 0 642 54703 3 www.npi.gov.au Commonwealth of Australia 2001 http://www2.unitar.org/cwm/publications/cbl/prtr/ pdf/cat5/Australia_sugar.pdf 4. Andrews and Godshall: Comparing the Effects of Sulphur Dioxide on Model Sucrose and Cane Juice Systems 90 COMPARING THE EFFECTS OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE ON MODEL SUCROSE AND CANE JUICE SYSTEMS L.S. Andrews and M.A. Godshall Sugar Processing Research Institute, Inc. 1100 Robert E. Lee Blvd New Orleans, LA 5. CLEANER TECHNOLOGY PROJECT FOR SUGAR SECTOR (CTPS) Copyright CPI 2011 - All rights reserved. Last modified : March 2011 Disclaimer Notice - Privacy Policy http://www.pisd.com.pk/sugar.php 6.Sugar - Sulphitation - Sugar Engineers www.sugartech.co.za/sulphitation/ https://www.google.com.pk/?gws_rd=cr&ei=AtKcUoi7OIqatQaM7IDoBw#q=sulphitation+proc ess+in+sugar+industry 7. SUCROTECH EQUIPMENTS http://www.sucrotech.com/about-us.html

8. EMISSION FACTOR DOCUMENTATION FOR AP-42 SECTION 1.8 BAGASSE COMBUSTION IN SUGAR MILLS Prepared by: Edward Aul & Associates, Inc. Chapel Hill, NC 27514 E. H. Pechan & Associates, Inc. Rancho Cordova, CA 95742 Contract No. 68-DO-0120 EPA Work Assignment Officer: Michael Hamlin Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards Office Of Air And Radiation U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 April 1993 http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch01/bgdocs/b01s08.pdf

9. How Are Oxides Of Sulphur And Nitrogen Harmful To The Environment? - Blurtit: http://science.blurtit.com/102362/how-are-oxides-of-sulphur-and-nitrogen-harmful-to-theenvironment 10. Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook WORLD BANK GROUP Effective July 1998 http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/5cb16d8048855c248b24db6a6515bb18/HandbookSulfurOxid es.pdf?MOD=AJPERES 11. Industrial Emission Controls: Sulphur Dioxide - Air Quality | Acid ... http://www.google.com.pk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CD8QFjAD&u rl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.airquality.org.uk%2F27.php&ei=1E2nUsbPAqHsygOuooD4Cw&usg=AFQjCNHMD4nmfjSGJycorEl DIy8BYkWGzg&bvm=bv.57799294,d.bGQ&cad=rja http://www.air-quality.org.uk/27.php