Small Populations and Losing Genetic Diversity

do populations suffer a significant

deterioration as a consequence of a sudden decrease in numbers (a genetic bottleneck) ?
eg. reduction in fitness of cheetahs following a bottleneck about 10,000 yrs BP current populations have deformed sperm; low genetic variation; susceptibility to disease; high mortality of cubs

What genetic variables must be considered by conservation ecologists ? population size

genetic drift
(bottlenecks) (founder effects)

population origin

(loss of variability)

gene flow

(gain of variability)

inbreeding depression (loss of fitness)

out-breeding depression (loss of fitness)

hybridization (loss of distinctness/gain in variability)

genetic bottleneck

population has an abrupt contraction in numbers

Bottleneck

accompanied
frequencies

by

change

in

gene

decline in genetic variation due to loss

of numbers

 population numbers may recover, but genetic variation may be low

original population

recovering population

bottleneck

Bottleneck options

recovery
bottleneck isolation & low diversity populations must remain small & inbreed

founder effect
establishment of new population by one or a few individuals

founding population

recovered population numbers

low levels of genetic variation depending on the genetic variation in the founder population

founder effect
may result in a disproportionate number of alleles rare in the parent population but now common in the new population

2 in 14 = 1 in 7 4 in 5

inbreeding depression
when closely related individuals mate (inbreed), there is a high probability that genes will be homozygous some recessive alleles are deleterious

effects only apparent when they individuals are homozygous for the recessive allele
may result in lower fitness ie. reduced successful reproduction more likely to occur in small populations such as populations recovering from a bottleneck

gene flow
gene flow is movement of genes among populations, usually through dispersal and migration of individuals high gene flow causes populations to become genetically similar restricted gene flow allows populations to become different restricted gene flow can also lead to loss of genetic diversity (genetic drift and inbreeding)

genetic drift
random change in gene frequencies through chance more apparent in small populations occurs because there is an element of chance in which individuals successfully breed can lead to loss of genetic variation

larger populations sizes can buffer against loss of genetic variation

out-breeding
breeding between individuals from populations which have been isolated many isolated populations have distinctively different gene pools out-breeding introduces new alleles into the population (gene flow ?)

out-breeding may be desirable as it can increase genetic diversity eg. Black-footed Rock-wallaby

out-breeding depression
may result in loss of fitness may introduce genes not adapted to the particular environment

hybridization
production of offspring by parents from different species in nature, hybridization is prevented by a barrier geographic seasonal behavioural

animal species rarely hybridize plants often hybridize

offspring in animals are usually infertile; plant hybrids are often fertile

 plant species hybridize more readily eg. Buxton Gum (rare) x Swamp Gum (common) offspring frequently fertile

F1 offspring can breed back to the parents, with other F1s, or with F2s
called introgression

results in populations with a genetic range from pure to very hybridized

 hybridization is uncommon in animals, but can occur

sometimes offspring are fertile

introgression can occur

introgression is the breeding of F1, F2, F3 etc. offspring with the parental species, and each other, and results in a "hybrid swarm"

eg. Pacific Black Duck x Mallard Duck

P1

P2

F1

hybridization in rare species presents some "problems" for conservation

1. rare population may show "outbreeding depression" - reduced "fitness" due to gamete wastage and reduced seed set in the parent species outbreeding depression is unlikely to be a problem in long-lived species; may be a problem in rare, long-lived species 2. if hybrids are fertile, hybridization may lead to assimilation of the rare species through introgression

3. are hybrid populations legally protected once they are not "genetically pure" ?

4. hybrid swarms represent large pools of genetic diversity - isnt this desirable ????

5. hybridization may lead to the evolution of new species - one of the aims of biodiversity conservation - what if it occurs with the loss on one or both parent species ??? How important is this ?