The

study of flow of electrons in various materials or space subjected to various conditions. branch of physics that deals with the emission and effects of electrons and with the use of electronic devices.

The

 In

the past, it dealt with the study of vacuum tubes or thermionic valves, today it mainly deals with flow of electrons in semiconductors. despite these technological differences, the main focus of electronics remains to controlled flow of electrons through a medium.

However,

 The

history of electronics is a story of the twentieth century and three key components the vacuum tube, the transistor and the integrated circuit.

 In

1833, Thomas Alva Edison discovered that electrons will flow from one metal conductor to another through a vacuum. This discovery of conduction became known as the Edison effect.

 In

1904, John Fleming applied the Edison effect in inventing a two-element electron tube called a diode, and Lee De Forest followed in 1906 with the three-element tube, the triode. These vacuum tubes were the devices that made manipulation of electrical energy possible so it could be amplified and transmitted.

With

vacuum tubes the manipulation of signals become possible, which could not be done with the early telegraph and telephone circuit or with the early transmitters using high-voltage sparks to create radio waves.

 For

example, with vacuum tubes weak radio and audio signals could be amplified, and audio signals, such as music or voice, could be superimposed on radio waves. The development of a large variety of tubes designed for specialized functions made possible the swift progress of radio communication technology before World War II and the development of early computers during and shortly after the war.

 The

transistor, invented in 1948, has now almost completely replaced the vacuum tube in most of its applications. Incorporating an arrangement of semiconductor materials and electrical contacts, the transistor provides the same functions as the vacuum tube but at reduced cost, weight, and power consumption and with higher reliability.

Subsequent,

advances in semiconductor technology, in part attributable to the intensity of research associated with the spaceexploration effort, led to the development of the integrated circuit.

 Integrated

circuits may contain hundreds of thousands of transistors on a small piece of material and allow the construction of complex electronic circuits, such as those in microcomputers, audio and video equipment, and communications satellites.

Electric

and electronic circuits can be dangerous. Safe practices are practices are necessary to prevent electric shock, fires, explosions, mechanical damage, and injuries resulting from the improper use of tools.

 Perhaps

the greatest hazard is electrical shock. A current through the human body in excess of 10 milliamperes can paralyze the victim and make it impossible to let go of a live conductor or component. Ten milliamperes is a rather small amount of electrical flow. It is only ten one-thousandths of an ampere. An ordinary flashlight uses more than 100 times that amount of current!

 Flashlight

cells and batteries are safe to handle because the resistance of human skin is normally high enough to keep the current flow very small. For example, touching an ordinary 1.5V cell produces a current flow in the microampere range. This amount of current is too small to be noticed.

 High

voltage, on the other hand, can force enough current through the skin to produce a shock. If the current approaches 100 milliamperes or more, the shock can be fatal. Thus, the danger of shock increases with voltage. Those who work with high voltage must be properly trained and equipped.

 When

human skin is moist or cut, its resistance to the flow of electricity can drop drastically. When this happens, even moderate voltages may cause a serious shock. Experienced technicians know this, and they also know that so-called low voltage equipment may have a high-voltage section or two.

 In

other words, they do not practice two methods of working with circuits: one for high voltage and one for low voltage. They follow safe procedures at all times. They do not assume a circuit is off even though the switch is in OFF position. They know the switch could be defective.

As

your knowledge and experience grow, you will learn many specific safe procedures for dealing with electricity and electronics. In the meantime:

Always follow procedures. 2. Use service manuals as often as possible. They often contain specific safety information. 3. Investigate before you act. 4. When in doubt, do not act. Ask your instructor or supervisor.
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