Chapter:4

Information Theory and Baseband Communication System

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Shannon's theorem
proved by Claude Shannon in 1948, describes the maximum possible efficiency of error
correcting methods versus levels of noise interference and data corruption. The theory
doesn't describe how to construct the error-correcting method, it only tells us how good
the best possible method can be. Shannon's theorem has wide-ranging applications in
both communications and data storage applications.
The theoretical maximum rate at which error free digits can be transmitted over a
bandwidth limited channel in the presence of noise is


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Example
If it is required to transmit at 50 kbit/s, and a bandwidth of 1 MHz
is used, then the minimum SNR required is ????????
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Line coding schemes
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Unipolar NRZ scheme
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Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
In NRZ-L, the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
RS232.
In NRZ-I, the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value
of the bit. USB, Compact CD, and Fast-Ethernet.
NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd.
NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC component problem.
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RZ scheme
Return to zero
Self clocking
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Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester
schemes
In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the
middle of the bit is used for synchronization.
The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2
times that of NRZ. 802.3 token bus and 802.4 Ethernet

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Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary
In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and
negative.
Pseudoternary:
1 represented by absence of line signal
0 represented by alternating positive and negative
DS1, E1
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Summary of line coding schemes
Plus HDB3 and B8ZS
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Quiz
Plot Unipolar NRZ, polar NRZ, NRZ-I, AMI,
Manchester, Def. Manchester for 101011100

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NRZ-inverted
(differential
encoding)
1 0 1
0
1 1 0 0 1
Unipolar
NRZ
AMI
encoding
Manchester
encoding
Differential
Manchester
encoding
Polar NRZ
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Baseband binary data transmission system
Baseband Signal - The information signal is called the baseband signal. The
bandwidth is always a positive quantity so the bandwidth of this signal is fm.
Passband Signal - The multiplication of this signal with a sinusoid carrier signal
translates the whole thing up to fc. This signal is now called the passband signal.
This signal extends in range from (-fc - fm ) to (fc + fm.). The new signal has
doubled in bandwidth. The passband signal bandwidth is double that of the
baseband signal.
The baseband transmission of binary data involves direct tranmission of the
binary data as it is (except certain modification in the pulse shape) without
modulation by carrier. Figure below shows the basic building blocks for baseband
transmisssion
Figure Baseband binary data transmission system.
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(Polar form)
TX Filter Channel RX Filter
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ISI
First term : contribution of the i-th transmitted bit.
Second term : ISI residual effect of all other transmitted bits.






We wish to design transmit and receiver filters to minimize the ISI.
When the signal-to-noise ratio is high, as is the case in a telephone system, the
operation of the system is largely limited by ISI rather than noise.
if we transmit digital data which demands more bandwidth which exceeds channel
bandwidth, spreading will occur and cause signal pulses to overlap.
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ISI Example
5T
0
t
Sequence of three pulses (1, 0, 1)
sent at a rate 1/T
sequence sent 1 0 1
sequence received 1 1(!) 1
Signal received
Threshold
4T 3T 2T T 0 -T -2T -3T
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Nyquist Criterion: Time domain
p(t): impulse response of a transmission system (infinite length)
Equally spaced zeros,
interval T
f
n
=
2
1
T
f
N
=
2
1
0
2t
0
t
t
0
1
p(t)
-1
shaping function
no ISI !
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Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband
Binary Transmission





Frequency domain criteria

Time domain criteria
This is named the Nyquist criterion.
The overall system frequency function P(f) suffers no ISI for
samples taken at interval T
b
if it satisfies the above equation.
Notably, P(f) represents the overall accumulative effect of
transmit filter, channel response, receive filter, etc.
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Ideal Nyquist channel (Ideal solution)
The simplest P(f) that satisfies Nyquist criterion is the
rectangular function:
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Infeasibility of ideal Nyquist channel
Due to brick wall response of p(f), it is
physically not realizable.
Prone to error due to timing error margin
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Practical solution:Raised Cosine Spectrum

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The transmission bandwidth of the raised cosine spectrum is
equal to:B = 2W(1+ )
where is the rolloff factor, which is the excess bandwidth
over the ideal solution.
In time domain:
The first term ensures the desired zero crossing of p(t).
The second term provides the necessary tail convergence rate of p(t).
The special case of = 1 is known as the full-cosine rolloff characteristic.
We have more zero-crossing at 3Tb/2, 5Tb/2, 7Tb/2,in addition to the desired
Tb, 2Tb, 3TbThis is useful in synchronization. However, the price to pay for this
excessive synchronization information is to double the bandwidth


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Correlative-level coding
ISI, when generated in an uncontrolled manner, is an undesirable
phenomenon.
However, ISI may become a friend if it is added to the transmitted
signal in a controlled manner.
Known fact: A signal of bandwidth W can be distortionlessly
transmitted using its samples with sampling rate 2W.
Conversely, in a channel with bandwidth WHz, the theoretical
maximum signal rate is 2W symbols per second
Why intentionally adding ISI? Answer: To have better bandwidth
efficiency.
Ideal Nyquist pulse shaping is efficient; it cannot be realized.
Raised consine pulse shaping is realizable; it is bandwidth
inefficient.
By adding ISI to the transmitted symbols in a controlled manner, we
can achieve the Nyqusit rate 2W in a channel bandwidth of W
Hertz.
Correlative-level coding or Partial-response signaling
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Duobinary signaling
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the response HI(f) is realizable.
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Duobinary Signaling
The tails of h
I
(t) decay as 1/|t|
2
, which is a faster rate of decay
than 1/|t| encountered in the ideal Nyquist channel.
Let represent the estimate of the original pulse a
k
as
conceived by the receiver at time t=kT
b


Propagate : drawback, once error are made, they tend to
propagate through the output
Precoding : practical means of avoiding the error propagation
phenomenon before the duobinary coding
^
k
a
^
1
^

=
k k k
a c a
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Duobinary Signaling
{d
k
} is applied to a pulse-amplitude modulator, producing a
corresponding two-level sequence of short pulse {a
k
}, where +1 or
1 as before
1
1 1
0
k k
k
symbol if either symbol b or d is
d
symbol otherwise

1
+ =
k k k
a a c
1
=
k k k
d b d
1 0
0 2
k
k
k
if data symbol b is
c
if data symbol b is

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Duobinary Signaling
|c
k
|=1 : random guess in favor of symbol 1 or 0

0 , 1 | |
1 , 1 | |
is b symbol say c If
is b symbol say c If
k k
k k
>
<
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Modified Duobinary Signaling
The PSD of the signal is nonzero at the origin. This is considered to be
an undesirable feature in some applications, since many
communication channels cannot transmit a DC component.
solution: modified duobinary technique.
Subtracting amplitude-modulated pulses spaced 2T
b
second

1
+ =
k k k
a a c
( ) ( )[1 exp( 4 )]
2 ( )sin(2 ) exp( 2 )
IV Nyquist b
Nyquist b b
H f H f j fT
jH f fT j fT
t
t t
=
=
2 sin(2 ) exp( 2 ), | | 1/ 2
( )
0,
b b b
IV
j fT j fT f T
H f
elsewhere
t t s

2
sin( / ) sin[ ( 2 ) / ]
( )
/ ( 2 ) /
2 sin( / )
(2 )
b b b
IV
b b b
b b
b
t T t T T
h t
t T t T T
T t T
t T t
t t
t t
t
t

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Modified Duobinary Signaling with
pecoding
precoding

2
2
1 1
0
k k k
k k
d b d
symbol if either symbol b or d is
symbol otherwise

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Correlative-Level Coding
Modified Duobinary Signaling
|c
k
|=1 : random guess in favor of symbol 1 or 0

| | 1, 1
| | 1, 0
k k
k k
If c say symbol b is
If c say symbol b is
>
<
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Baseband M-ary PAM transmission
For M-ary PAM transmission, there are M possible symbols with symbol
duration T.
1/T is referred to as the signaling rate or symbol rate or symbols per
second or baud.
Some equivalences
Each symbol can be equivalently identified with log
2
M bits.
So the baud rate 1/T can be equivalently transformed to bps as:
T=T
b
log
2
M
For fixed bps, the transmitted power for M-ary transmission must be
increased by a factor M
2
/log
2
M.
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Eye Pattern
Be produced by the synchronized superposition of
successive symbol intervals of the distorted waveform
appearing at the output of the receive-filter prior to
thresholding
From an experimental perspective, the eye pattern
offers two compelling virtues
The simplicity of generation
The provision of a great deal of insightful information about
the characteristics of the data transmission system, hence its
wide use as a visual indicator of how well or poorly a data
transmission system performs the task of transporting a data
sequence across a physical channel.
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Timing Features
Three timing features pertaining to binary data
transmission system,
Optimum sampling time : The width of the eye opening
defines the time interval over the distorted binary waveform
appearing at the output of the receive-filter
Zero-crossing jitter : in the receive-filter output, there will
always be irregularities in the zero-crossings, which, give rise
to jitter and therefore non-optimum sampling times
Timing sensitivity : This sensitivity is determined by the rate
at which the eye pattern is closed as the sampling time is
varied.
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Fig.6.5
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Interpretation of Eye Diagram
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Vertical and Horizontal Eye Openings
The vertical eye opening or noise
margin is related to the SNR, and
thus the BER
A large eye opening corresponds
to a low BER
The horizontal eye opening relates
the jitter and the sensitivity of the
sampling instant to jitter
The red brace indicates the range
of sample instants with good eye
opening
At other sample instants, the eye
opening is greatly reduced, as
governed by the indicated slope

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Interpretation of Eye Diagram
10 points in the final
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Important!!!!!
These slides do not cover all the derivations and
exercise. Plz further refer your class notes and
books
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