12- Standard Categorical

Statements
• Categorical statements are statements which
affirm or deny something about a given
subject
• 4 forms
– All S are P.
– No S are P.
– Some S are P.
– Some S are not P.
 12- Standard Categorical
Statements
• Nobody shuts the door.
– or- Nobody is a door-shutter.
– No person is a door-shutter
• 2 Parts
– Subject (S)
– Predicate (P)
• A statement shows the relationship between
an S and a P
 12- Standard Categorical
Statements
• Quantity and a Quality
– Quantity
• Universal (all and no)
• Particular (some and some...not)
– Quality
• Affirmative (all and some)
• Negative (no and some....not)
Statement Quantity Quality
All S are P Universal Affirmative
No S are P Universal Negative
Some S are P Particular Affirmative
Some S are not P Particular Negative
 12- Standard Categorical
Statements
• Rules
– The statements must begin with the words all,
no , or some.
– The verb must be the verb of being: is, as, was,
were, will be....
– Both the subject and the predicate must be a
noun or a noun phrase.
• Example:
• All dogs are brown.
• All dogs are brown animals (All D are B)
 13- The Square of Opposition
• A statements (Universal affirmative)

– Translation
– 1. Everyone who comes to school studies.
– 2. All our school attenders study.
– 3. All our school attenders are studiers.
– 4. All A are S.
 13- The Square of Opposition
• E statements (Universal negative)

– Translation
– 1. None of my friends understand Algebra.
– 2. No friends of mine understand Algebra
– 3. No friends of mine are Algebra-understanders
– 4. No F are A.
 13- The Square of Opposition
• I statements (Particular Affirmative)

– Translation
– 1. Many students know a lot about Statistics
– 2. Some students know a lot about Satistics.
– 3. Some students are Staistics-knowers
– 4. Some S are K
 13- The Square of Opposition
• O statements (Particular Negative)

– Translation
– 1. Many books do not have words.
– 2. Some books do not have words
– 3. Some books are not word-books.
– 4. Some N are not W.
 13- The Square of Opposition
• Square of Opposition
• All S are P (A) No S are P (E)

• Some S are P (I) Some S are not P (O)

 14- Contradiction
• Square of Opposition presents 5 different
relationships
1. Contradiction
– 2. Contrariety
– 3. Subcontrariety
– 4. Subimplication
– 5. Superimplication
• Contradiction- Relationship between A and O
and I and E
 14- Contradiction
• A and O
– All S are P – Some S are not P.
– All apples are fruit- Some apples are not fruit.
• E and I
– Some S are P- No S are P
– Some apples are fruit. No apples are fruit.
• Both cannot be true and both cannot be false.
• One must be true and the other false.
• These are inconsistent.
 14- Contradiction

• A E

• I O
 15- Contrariety
Contrary- relationship between A and E.
– Both cannot be true but both can be false.
– All astronauts are men. No astronauts are men.
– All A are M. No A are M.
• Either one could be true or they both could be
false but they can't both be true.
– All snakes are green reptiles.
– No snakes are green reptiles
– All S are G. No S are G.
• Discussion over if all Caesers were cruel or
some were cruel.
 16- Subcontrariety
Subcontrariety- relationship between I and O.
– Both cannot be false but both can be true.

– Some teachers are boring speakers.

– Some teachers are not boring speakers.

– Some students are intelligent.

– Some students are not intelligent.
 16- Subcontrariety
Think about it:
• 1. If it is false that some students are not
intelligent, that is the same as saying that all
are intelligent (by contradiction)
• 2. If all students are intelligent, then it must be
true that some students are intelligent (by
implication)
• 3. And if it is true that some students are
intelligent, then it cannot be false that some
are (by the laws of thought)
• 4. Thus they cannot both be false.
 17- Subimplication
Subimplication- The relationship of A to I ; E to O
• The truth of a universal implies the truth of a
particular
– If A is true then I is true
– If E is true the O is true
– All apples are red. Some apples are red.
– No apples are purples. Some apples are not
purple.
• Nothing to do with falsity but with implication of
truth.
 18- Superimplication
Superimplication- The relationship of I to A ;O to E
• The falsity of the particular implies the falsity of
the universal
– If I is false then A is false
– If O is false then E is false
• Some apples are red.All apples are red.
• Some apples are not purple.No apples are
purples.
• 1. If it is false that some apples are not purple
then it must be true that all apples are purple
(by contradiciton)
 18- Superimplication

• 2. If all of them are purple then it must be

false that none are purples (by contrariety)