DBMS

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Table 1.1 Basic File Terminology

Data Raw facts that have little meaning unless they have been organized in some logical manner. The smallest piece of data that can be recognized by the computer is a single character, such as the letter A, the number 5, or some symbol such as; ? > * +. A single character requires one byte of computer storage. A character or group of characters (alphabetic or numeric) that has a specific meaning. A field might define a telephone numbers, a birth date, a customer name, a year-to-date (YTD) sales value, and so on. A logically connected set of one or more fields that describes a person, place, or thing. For example, the fields that comprise a record for a customer named J. D. Rudd might consist of J. D. Rudds name, address, phone number, date of birth, credit limit, unpaid balance, and so on. A collection of related records. For example, a file might contain data about ROBCOR Companys vendors; or, a file might contain the records for the students currently enrolled at Gigantic University.
Field
Record
File
Database
A Database is a collection of stored operational data used by the application systems of some particular enterprise (C.J. Date)
Paper Databases
Still contain a large portion of the worlds knowledge
File-Based Data Processing Systems

Early batch processing of (primarily) business data
Database Management Systems (DBMS)
From File Systems to DBMS

Problems with file processing systems
Inconsistent data Inflexibility Limited data sharing Poor enforcement of standards Excessive program maintenance
DBMS Benefits

Minimal data redundancy Consistency of data Integrity of data Sharing of data Ease of application development Uniform security, privacy, and integrity controls Data accessibility and responsiveness Data independence Reduced program maintenance
Database Systems
Types of Database Systems
Number of Users
Single-user
Desktop database
Multiuser
Workgroup database Enterprise database
Scope
Desktop Workgroup Enterprise
Database Systems
Types of Database Systems

Location
Centralized Distributed
Use
Transactional (Production) Decision support Data warehouse
Terms and Concepts

Data independence
Physical representation and location of data and the use of that data are separated
The application doesnt need to know how or where the database has stored the data, but just how to ask for it Moving a database from one DBMS to another should not have a material effect on application program Recoding, adding fields, etc. in the database should not affect applications
Key Terms cont.

Database System
A database, a database management system and appropriate hardware and personnel.

number, Designation Hours worked, Pay rate Insurance, Pension
Files and Databases
File: A collection of records or documents dealing with one organization, person, area or subject (Rowley)
Manual (paper) files Computer files
Database: A collection of similar records with relationships between the records (Rowley)
Bibliographic, statistical, business data, images, etc.
Disadvantages of File Processing

Program-Data Dependence
All programs maintain metadata for each file they use
Duplication of Data
Different systems/programs have separate copies of the same data
Limited Data Sharing

No centralized control of data
Lengthy Development Times

Programmers must design their own file formats
Excessive Program Maintenance

80% of information systems budget
Problems with Data Dependency

Each application programmer must maintain his/her own data Each application program needs to include code for the metadata of each file Each application program must have its own processing routines for reading, inserting, updating, and deleting data Lack of coordination and central control Non-standard file formats
Database System: People
Two different types of people (users and practitioners) are concerned with the database. Users
who need information from the database to carry out their primary business responsibility e.g. Executives, managers, staff, clerical personnel
Problems with Data Redundancy
Waste of space to have duplicate data Causes more maintenance headaches The biggest problem:
Data changes in one file could cause inconsistencies Compromises in data integrity
Practitioners people responsible for the database system and its associated application software.
e.g. Database administrators, analysts, programmers, database and system designers, information systems managers.
Four components: People, H/W, S/W, Data
Practitioners (analysts and database designers) in consultation with users identify data needs and design database structures to accommodate these needs. The database structures are specified to the DBMS through the data dictionary.
Users enter data into the system by following specified procedures. The entered data are maintained on hardware media such as disks and tapes. Application programmes that access the database are written by practitioners and users to be run on computers.
Database Management System

Systems software that facilitates the management of a database. E.g. Oracle, Access, SQL Server
DBMS
An application software that organises data into records in one or more databases and allows organising, accessing and sorting of the data in a variety of formats.
Database Management System

A software system that is used to create, maintain, and provide controlled access to user databases
Order Filing System
Invoicing System
DBMS
Central database Contains employee, order, inventory, pricing, and customer data
Payroll System
DBMS manages data resources like an operating system manages hardware resources
Figure 1-1b Summarized data

Graphical displays turn data into useful information that managers can use for decision making and interpretation
Data Dictionary/Directory (Repository

A subsystem that keeps track of the
definitions of all data items in the database. relationships that exists between various data structures. indexes that are used to access data quickly. screen and report format definitions that may be used by various application programs.
Metadata
Metadata: data that describes the properties and context of user data Data that describe the properties or characteristics of other data. Some of these properties include data definitions, data structures and rules or constraints. Item name, the data type, length, minimum and maximum allowable values (where appropriate) and a brief description of each data item. Metadata allow database designers and users to understand what data exist, what the data mean. Data without clear meaning can be confusing, misinterpreted or erroneous.
Descriptions of the properties or characteristics of the data, including data types, field sizes, allowable values, and data context
E.g.

Data Item Value Name Type Length Min Max Description Name Character 30 Employee Name ID Number 9 Employee No. DeptCharacter 10 Dept. No. Age Integer 2 18 60 Employee Age Character Number 15 9 Dept. Name Mgr. Emp. No.
Name Manager
Employee No. (ID) unique Manager is an employee of the organisation
Data Security
Access is often controlled by passwords and by data views, which are definitions of restricted portions of the database.
Data Integrity
The integrity and consistency of the database are protected via constraints on values that data items can have and by backup and recovery capabilities provided within the DBMS. Data constraint definitions are maintained in the data dictionary.
Backup and recovery are supported by software that automatically logs changes to the database and provides for a means of recovering the current state of the database in case of system failure.
Personal Computer Databases

Designed to support one user with a standard alone PC. E.g. a sales person keeping track of this customer information with contact details.
Department Databases
department is a functional unit of an organisation. It is larger than a workgroup. Department databases are designed to support the various functions and activities of a department. E.g. a personnel database that is designed to track data concerning employees, jobs, skills and job assignments.
Enterprise Databases
An enterprise is one whose scope is the entire organisation or enterprise. Such databases are intended to support organisation-wide operations and decision making. E.g. a large health care organisation that operates a group of medical centre's including hospitals, clinics and nursing homes.
Marketing
Sales Advertising
Accounting
Accounts Receivable Accounts Payable
Accounting
Corporate Database
Marketing
Purchasing
3 Levels
External
Users and Applications view of data
Conceptual
Logical Data Model
Physical
Physical data Model
External (Sub) Schema

defines the external view of data
as seen by a user or program
Conceptual Schema
defines the logical view of data
as seen by all users and programs
Physical (Internal) Schema

defines the physical view of data
as seen by a DBMS
3 Level Architecture
user a user i/program j
program x
sub-schema a sub-schema i sub-schema z conceptual schema physical schema

Databa ses
Physical View
The DBMS must know
exact physical location precise physical structure Employee record
A.B.C. De Silva
database
|222, Galle Road, Colombo Address (40 characters)
Name (20 characters)
650370690V|Senior Lecturer NID (10 char) Designation (15 char)
Physical View
Physical view provides the disk drives, physical addresses, indexes and pointers. Physical Database Design is the responsibility of the Database Administrator (DBA). No user is concerned with this view.
Physical devices to contain the data Access methods to retrieve and update data maintain and improve database performance
Logical View
The user/application must know
existence logical reference
NID 650370690V
database
Employee
Name A.B.C. De Silva
Designation Senior Lecturer

Address 222, Galle Road, Colombo
Logical View
This is a single logical description of all data elements and their relationships. It is the result of the conceptual design which involves analysis of all users information needs and data definition of data items needs to meet them. SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to define the data elements.
External View
The user/application see
authorised data own format database
Lecturer
Name A.B.C. De Silva Department Dept. of Computer Science Age 35
Designation Senior Lecturer
External View
This consists of user views of the database. Each definable user group will have its own view of the database. Each of these views gives a useroriented description of the data elements and relationships of which the view is composed.
User View
A logical description of some portion of the database that is required by a user to perform some task. E.g. Benefit application user will view part of the employee data, excluding data such as date of birth and salary.
External View
It can be derived directly from the conceptual schema. The collection of all user views is the external level. SQL CREATE VIEW statement is used to create these views and SQL GRANT statement is used to restrict its use to a user group.
External Views Allows to

hide unauthorised data
e.g. salary, dob
provide user view

e.g. view employee name, designation, department data taken from employee and department files
derive new attributes

e.g. age derived from dob or nid
External Views Allows to

change unit of measurement
e.g. show age in years or months
define security levels

e.g. update access to employee file read-only to department file
Data Definition Language (DDL)

- is the language component of a DBMS that defines each data element as it appears in the database.
Data Manipulation Language (DML)

- is a language associated with a DBMS that is employed by end users and programmers to manipulate data in the database.
Structured Query Language (SQL)

- pronounced as sequel, is the standard data manipulation for relational DBMSs.
Characteristics of Modern DBMS

Query processing and optimisation Transaction management Concurrency control Database recovery Database security and authorisation Distributed databases Data warehousing and data mining
Function of a DBMS
Functions of a DBMS are concerned with providing efficient flexible data processing capabilities without compromising data validity. Main Functions are:
Shared data Control redundancy Data integrity Data security
Advantages

Program-data independence Minimal data redundancy Improved data consistency Improved data sharing Increased productivity of application development Enforcement of standards Improved data quality Improved data accessibility and responsiveness Reduced program maintenance
Minimal Data Redundancy
Data files are integrated into a single, logical structure. Each primary fact is recorded (ideally) in only one place in the database. E.g. Employee data not with the payroll and benefit files. Note: Data redundancy is not eliminated entirely. Some data items will appear in more than one place (e.g. employee no.) to represent the relationship with others.
Improved Data Consistency
By eliminating (or controlling) data redundancy, we greatly reduce the opportunities for inconsistency. E.g. employee address is stored only once and hence we cannot have disagreement on the stored values. Also, updating data values is greatly simplified and have avoid the wasted storage space.
Improved Data Quality

A number of tools and processes are available to improve data quality.
Database designers can specify integrity constraints that are enforced by the DBMS. One of the objectives of a data warehouse environment is to clean up operational data before they are placed in the data warehouse.
Constraint A rule that cannot be violated by database users.
Reduced Program Maintenance

Stored data are changed frequently for variety of reasons such as new data items types are added, and data formats change (e.g. date format from two-digit to four digit). Data independence allows to reduce the program maintenance time.
Disadvantages
DBMS are more vulnerable than filebased system because of the centralised nature of a large integrated database. If a failure occurs the recovery process is more complex and some times may results in lost transactions. Hardware, software and personnel cost are higher for DBMS.
Costs and Risks of the Database Approach

New, specialized personnel Installation and management cost and complexity Conversion costs Need for explicit backup and recovery Organizational conflict
PC Databases
E.g.: Access FoxPro Dbase Etc.
Centralized Databases
Central Computer
Distributed Databases
Location C
Location B
computer
computer
computer
Location A
Homogeneous Databases
Distributed Databases
Heterogeneous Or Federated Databases Database Server Client
Remote Comp.
Local Network Comm Server Client

Remote Comp.
TYPES OF DATABASE
WHAT LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DBMS

DATA REDUNDANCY DATA INCONSISTENCY DATA ISOLATION DATA INTEGRITY
The problem arising from the traditional file environment approach brought forward the development of DBMS i.e.
DBMS provided solutions by eliminating these problems and Amity Business School providing with the following advantages :
1. 2. 3. 4. Reduced complexity of systems environment. the organizations information
Reduced data redundancy & inconsistency Improved maintenance costs. Increased access & availability of data & information.
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF DBMS

DATA MODEL : It defines the way data are conceptually structured. TYPES OF DATA MODEL A) Hierarchical Database Model : In this particular model, the database is arranged logically in an inverted tree pattern such that each database has only one owner. For example, Management hierarchy in an organization
MANY EMPLOYEES BUT ONE MANAGER AT EACH LEVEL : Searching is fast & efficient in hierarchical database model.
B) Network Database Model : Amity Business School It creates relationships among data through a linked list structure in which subordinate records or members can be linked to more than one data element called an owner. With this network approach, a member record can be linked to an owner record & at the same time, itself can be an owner record linked to other sets of members. A network model places no restrictions on the number of relationships or sets in which a field can be involved, thus, it is more consistent with real-world business relationships, for example,
c) Relational Database Model : Amity Business School It is based on the simple concept of tables in order to capitalize on characteristics of rows & columns of data. In a relational database, these tables are called relations, besides this, each row of data is equivalent to a record and each column of data is equivalent to a field.
NAME Smith A. Jones W. Lee J. Durham K. TITLE Dir. Accounting Dir. Total Quality Management Dir. I.T. Manager, Production AGE 43 32 46 35 DIVISION CHINA STERNWARE CHINA STERNWARE
Basics of the Relational Model

Represent data as a two-dimensional table called a relation
Definition
Distributed Database: A single

logical database spread physically across computers in multiple locations that are connected by a data communications link
Major Objectives
Location Transparency
User does not have to know the location of the data Data requests automatically forwarded to appropriate sites
Local Autonomy
Local site can operate with its database when network connections fail Each site controls its own data, security, logging, recovery
Advantages of Distributed Database over Centralized Databases

Increased reliability/availability Local control over data Modular growth Lower communication costs Faster response for certain queries
Data integrity exposure Slower response for certain queries
Disadvantages of Distributed Database Compared to Software cost and complexity Centralized Databases Processing overhead
Data replication
Options for Distributing a Database
Copies of data distributed to different sites
Horizontal partitioning
Different rows of a table distributed to different sites
Vertical partitioning
Different columns of a table distributed to different sites
Combinations of the above
EMERGING DATA MODELS Amity Business School

Object-Oriented Database Model : It is a recent development in database models. The central idea is that of an object i.e. a small amount of data encapsulated with all the data needed in order to perform an operation with that data. For companies with widely distributed offices, an object-oriented database can provide users with a view of data throughout the overall system.
Amity : Business School Multidimensional Database Model In this model, the data are intimately related & can be viewed & analyzed from different perspectives or dimensions. These dimensions represent the primary views of business data, for example,
SALE DATA (Dimensions) Product Geography Time
It represents sales of a specific product, in a specific market, at a particular time.
Multidimensional Model
Sales Volumes
Actual Sales for Blue & Sports across dealers
Dealership
Data Definition Language: Amity Business School The data definition language defines what types of information are in the database & how they will be structured. It is essentially the link between the logical and physical structures of the database. LOGICAL : the way the user views data PHYSICAL : the way the data is physically stored. It defines the physical characteristics of each record. a) the fields within the record b) Each fields data type c) Each fields length & logical name
Data Manipulation Language : Amity Business School The data manipulation language allows users to retrieve, sort, display & delete the contents of a database & for this very purpose QUERY LANGUAGES are used.
QUERY LANGUAGE : A query language is a set of commands for creating, updating & accessing data from a database.
One of the most popular forms of query language is SQL or Amity Business School STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE. SQL offers the ability to perform complicated searches with relatively simple statement such as SELECT - to specify a desired attribute. FROM to specify the table to be used WHERE to specify conditions to apply in the query. For example, SELECT Name, Address, City State, PIN FROM Customer WHERE State = MH The result would be a list of the names & addresses of all customers located in Maharashtra.
Data Dictionary : Amity Business School The data dictionary stores definitions of data elements i.e. fields & data characteristics such as individuals, business functions programs & reports that use the data elements as well as the physical representation, responsible parties in the organization i.e. data owners & security. Because the data dictionary provides standard definitions for all data elements, the potential for data inconsistency is reduced. In addition, it provides for faster program development because programmers do not have to create new data names. Data dictionaries also make it easier to modify data & information.
Amity Business School BENEFITS OF DBMS TO CORPORATE WORLD
Data Warehouses : A data warehouses is a relational or multidimensional DBMS designed to support management decision making. Data warehouses are oriented around the major business subjects of the enterprise, such as customer, vendor, product or activity. The data in the warehouse are stored in a single, agreed upon format which provides business users with a Customer centre view of the companys heterogeneous data. It provides added value to the companys customers by allowing them to access better information.
Data Marts : Amity Business School A data-mart is a scaled-down version of a data warehouse that focuses on a particular subject area. It is designed to support the unique business requirements of a specific department or business process. A company can have many data marts, each focused on a subset of the entire firm. Because of its reduced scope, a data mart takes less time to build, costs less and is less complex than an enterprise data warehouse. Therefore, a data mart is appropriate when a company needs to improve data access in a targeted area, such as the marketing department.
Data Mining :
Data mining provides a means of extracting previously unknown, predictive information from the base of accessible data in data warehouses. Data mining tools use sophisticated, automated algorithms to discover hidden patterns, correlations & relationships among organizational data. These tools are used to predict future trends & behaviors, allowing businesses to make proactive, knowledge driven decisions.
Amity Business School For example, one typical predictive problems is targeted marketing. Data mining can use data on past promotional mailings to identify the targets most likely to maximize the return on the companys investment in future mailings.
Definition
Distributed Database: A single

logical database spread physically across computers in multiple locations that are connected by a data communications link
Major Objectives
Location Transparency
User does not have to know the location of the data Data requests automatically forwarded to appropriate sites
Local Autonomy
Local site can operate with its database when network connections fail Each site controls its own data, security, logging, recovery
Advantages of Distributed Database over Centralized Databases

Increased reliability/availability Local control over data Modular growth Lower communication costs Faster response for certain queries
Disadvantages of Distributed Database Compared to Centralized Databases

Software cost and complexity Processing overhead Data integrity exposure Slower response for certain queries

DBMS

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Table 1.1 Basic File Terminology

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File-Based Data Processing Systems

Database Management Systems (DBMS)

From File Systems to DBMS

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Desktop Workgroup Enterprise

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Types of Database Systems

Terms and Concepts

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Key Terms cont.

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A database, a database management system and appropriate hardware and personnel.

Files and Databases

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Disadvantages of File Processing

Limited Data Sharing

Lengthy Development Times

Excessive Program Maintenance

Problems with Data Dependency

Database System: People

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Problems with Data Redundancy

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Four components: People, H/W, S/W, Data

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Database Management System

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Database Management System

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Figure 1-1b Summarized data

Data Dictionary/Directory (Repository

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Employee No. (ID) unique Manager is an employee of the organisation

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Personal Computer Databases

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