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Audesirk Textbook: Chapter 11 (p.185-198) Cell and Molecular Biology Textbook: Chapter 14.1 and 14.2
from preexisting cells, disproving spontaneous generation To create new cells, the old cell must go through cellular reproduction Cell division happens under a variety of circumstances:
Reproduction of an entire unicellular organism Growth of a fertilized egg into an adult multicellular
differentiation
Blood cells have been specialized so that they do
form two new daughter cells (new) After reproduction, the parent cell does not exist anymore Each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell from receiving the parent cells complete set of hereditary information, with the exception of mutations Each daughter cell receives about half of the parent cytoplasm
Budding
A part of the cell/organism grows outwards from the general
body and eventually cuts off from the parent Common in yeasts and hydra
Vegetative Clones
Binary Fission
replication
Bidirectional DNA
membrane using a protein. The attachment site is the origin DNA replication in prokaryotes is called bidirectional replication 1. The cell grows and expands its cytoplasm 2. The DNA starts replication from the origin and continues replication in opposite directions 3. The replicated DNA folds over to the other side of the cytoplasm 4. The continuing expansion of the cytoplasm pulls the DNA strands further apart 5. A protein called FtsZ goes into the center of the cell and marks the location for the cell membrane to pinch in, creating two daughter cells
through mitosis, the eukaryotic nucleus exists as a loosely organized complex of DNA strands and proteins, called chromatin After DNA is replicated, the two copies of the same DNA strand are called sister chromatids To prepare for mitosis, a variety of proteins compact chromatin to form chromosomes. Chromosomes are sturdier for mitosis than loosely stranded DNA After full compaction, chromosomes appear as two sister chromatids (identical DNA sequences) next to each other The sister chromatids are joined at a narrow region consisting of many proteins, called the centromere
condensed chromosomes THAT HAVE ALREADY GONE THROUGH DUPLICATION, have identical DNA sequences, and separate during division to be the DNA of the daughter cells Gene loci: the space on the chromosome one gene takes up Centromere: the complex of proteins in the chromosome center that help join the two sister chromatids together Telomeres: extraneous DNA sequences at the tips of chromosomes that do not code for any genes; every time DNA replicates, some of the strand is destroyed or chopped off in the process; the telomeres act as a
Homologous Chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes: are pairs of chromosomes
that code for the same genes Homologous chromosomes express the genes they code for in different ways due to difference in nucleotide sequence Therefore, every gene in eukaryotes has two DNA sequences coding for it due to the homologous chromosomes Cells with homologous chromosome pairs are called diploid cells (2n), because they contain two chromosomes to code for each gene Cells without homologous chromosome pairs only have one chromosome coding for each gene are called haploid cells (n) Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes The first 22 pairs in humans are called autosomes The 23 pair is called the sex chromosomes and are
Cell Cycle
for cell division The cell cycle consists of four stages Interphase: duplication and growth of cell contents
1. G1: cell and cytoplasm growth, organelle
duplication, normal cellular metabolic activities 2. S: duplication of DNA and centrosomes 3. G2: cell growth and preparation of mitosis
Mitotic Phase (M): division of the nucleus into two Cytokinesis (C): division of cytoplasm
phosphorylate other proteins The activity of this enzyme is controlled by other protein subunits
The progression into another phase of the cell cycle is
caused by the phosphorylation of different cellular proteins by using a phosphate group from ATP; the enzymes responsible for this are called cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) The activity of Cdks are regulated by protein subunits called cyclins Cyclins bind to Cdks, which causes a conformational change allowing for the Cdk to phosphorylate other cellular proteins The activity of Cdks can be excited or inhibited by other
Cdk G1 cyclins attach to Cdks to move cells into S phase Mitotic cyclins attach to Cdks to move cells into M phase
phase or chromosome alignment during M phase, have not been properly completed
There are three major checkpoints:
G1-S transition G2-M transition Metaphase-anaphase transition
make up the cell cycle occurs accurately and in the proper order Checkpoints arrest the cell in its current cell cycle phase, allowing time for the repair and correction of DNA or other errors
enter mitosis is subjected to UV irradiation, ATR kinase catalyzes a cascade of reactions that arrests the cell in G2 phase If a cell is exposed to ionizing radiation, ATM causes the production of p53, which causes the transcription of DNA to produce p21, a protein that arrests the cell in the G1 phase
chromosomes into two in eukaryotic cells Mitosis progresses through a series of stages:
Prophase Prometaphase (sometimes included within
Prophase
Prophase is the first phase of mitosis
other proteins In order for chromosomal division to occur properly, DNA has to go through chromosome compaction, which stabilizes the DNA against damage The DNA wraps around histone proteins which compact the DNA partially For the DNA to coil and completely condense, the use of a protein called condensin is needed Condensin binds to DNA in the presence of topoisomerase and ATP The structure of condensin allows for the supercoiling of DNA, transforming the DNA conformation to its most compact form Condensin is activated by the phosphorylation of its subunits by Cdks that transition the cell into the M phase Cohesin is another protein that is essential for chromosome formation Cohesin has a circular structure, which hold the sister chromatids together and is most abundant at the centromere
cell rapidly disassembles After the duplication of the centrosomes, disassembled cytoskeleton start rebuilding into microtubules starting from the centrosomes, creating mitotic spindles Motor proteins aid in moving the centrosomes to the opposite poles The disassembly of the nuclear envelope is caused by the phosphorylation of certain membrane proteins, which are promoted by mitotic Cdks The fragmented nuclear envelope become vesicles and are dispersed throughout the cell The Golgi apparatus and the ER fragment into separate vesicles
Prometaphase
Prometaphase is sometimes included within
prophase, in which prometaphase is called late prophase The primary objective of prometaphase is to:
Attach chromosomes to spindle fibers To start the alignment of chromosomes
proteins on the chromosome, called kinetochores, which are located at the chromosomal centromere The spindle microtubules begin pull chromosomes back and forth, in a process known as congression, which starts to pull the chromosomes towards the center of the cell
Metaphase
In metaphase, congression continues until all the
chromosomes are aligned in the center The result of metaphase is that all the chromosomes are aligned on an imaginary line called the metaphase plate, which is near the cellular equator The alignment of chromosomes is very important to the cell cycle, and there is a checkpoint to make sure that the chromosomes are aligned
Metaphase-Anaphase Checkpoint
The checkpoint between metaphase and anaphase is
called the spindle checkpoint The spindle checkpoint prevents a cell from going into anaphase when a chromosome fails to align properly This is important, because when cells go through with anaphase while having a misaligned chromosomes, the chromosomes are not divided evenly between daughter cells A daughter cell with an abnormal amount of chromosomes is called an aneuploidy Unattached kinetochores have a protein complex attached called Mad2 Mad2 arrests the cell in metaphase, preventing the cell from entering anaphase Once the chromosomes are properly aligned, the Mad2 complex detaches, and the cell is no longer arrested in metaphase
(anaphase promoting complex), Cdc20, securin, and separase When given certain signals, APC interacts with Cdc20 The protein complex destroys securin, which is a major anaphase inhibitor When securin is destroyed, a protease (an enzyme that lyses proteins) called separase is released Separase denatures the cohesin molecules holding the two sister chromatids together
Anaphase
The objective of anaphase is to separate the two
sister chromatids, which will form the DNA of the daughter cells Spindle microtubules that are attached to the kinetochores pull the sister chromatids apart in synchrony The chromatids move towards opposite poles of the cell as spindle microtubules shorten The movement process is very slow compared to the rate of other cellular activities Anaphase A refers to the separation and movement of chromatids to the opposite poles Anaphase B occurs simultaneously to anaphase A, and refers to the movement of the spindle poles further and further apart, which is caused by unattached spindle microtubules pressing against teach other
Telophase
Animation
Mitosis
daughter cells to the interphase condition Telophase is NOT the partitioning of the cytoplasm into two separate cells
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the partitioning of the parent
cytoplasm into two separate daughter cells Cytokinesis is not part of mitosis, and is considered as its own phase (C) Cytokinesis is different in animal and plant cells due to the difference in their outer structures
a cleavage furrow The formation of a cleavage furrow is made possible by actin and myosin filaments, which interact in similarly to how muscles contract 1. The cell membrane begins to pinch slightly in, starting a cleavage furrow 2. The release of a protein called RhoA assembles actin and myosin and activates the motor activity of myosin 3. The sliding of the actin and myosin filaments pull the plasma membrane deeper into the cell, increasing the cleavage furrow 4. Cytoplasmic vesicles containing materials needed to build the plasma membrane fuse on the cleavage furrow, generating more membrane 5. This continues until a new membrane has completely formed in between and the parent cell has now been partitioned into two daughter cells
Cytokinesis
Because of the rigidity of the cell wall, the cell wall and cell
membrane cannot pinch in using cleavage furrows like animal cells do Therefore, the cell wall and cell membrane has to form inside the cell and are extended outwards The imaginary line of where the new cell wall will be formed to partition the cytoplasm is called the cell plate The formation of a new cell wall comes from Golgi-derived carbohydrate-filled vesicles that fuse together The phragmoplast is a cluster of microtubules, actin filaments, and vesicles that are the remnants of the spindle fibers The phragmoplast guides the Golgi-derived carbohydrate vesicles towards the cell plate The carbohydrate vesicles fuse to form the cell wall and the cell membrane