Solar Cells Background

1839 - French physicist A. E. Becquerel first recognized the photovoltaic effect.

Photo+voltaic = convert light to electricity 1883 - first solar cell built, by Charles Fritts, coated semiconductor selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold to form the junctions. 1954 - Bell Laboratories, experimenting with semiconductors, accidentally found that silicon doped with certain impurities was very sensitive to light. Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson, invented the first practical device for converting sunlight into useful electrical power. Resulted in the production of the first practical solar cells with a sunlight energy conversion efficiency of around 6%. 1958 - First spacecraft to use solar panels was US satellite Vanguard 1

Solar Cell and Photoelectric Effect

h 1. Light absorption 2. Generation of free charges 3. effective separation of the charges Result: wearless generation of electrical Power by light absorption
2

+ -

energy-states in solids: Band-Pattern

Atom
energy-states

Molecule/Solid

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

energy-states in solids: Insulator

electron-energy

conduction-band

Fermilevel EF

bandgap EG (> 5 eV)

valence-band

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

Terms:
Fermilevel EF: limit between occupied and non occupied energy-states at T = 0 K (absolute zero)

valence-band:

completely occupied energy-band just below the Ferminiveau at T = 0 K, the electrons are fixed (tightly bound) inside the atomic structure energy-band just above the valence-band, the electrons can move freely
distance between valance-band and conduction band

conduction-band:
bandgap EG:

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

energy-states in solids : metal / conductor

electron-energy

Fermilevel EF

conduction-band

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

energy-states in solids: semiconductor

electron-energy

conduction-band

Fermilevel EF

bandgap EG ( 0,5 2 eV)

valence-band

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

Electron-Energy
At T=0 (absolute zero of temperature) the electrons occupy the lowest possible energy-states. They can now gain energy in two ways: Thermal Energy: kT (k = Boltzmanns Constant, 1.381x10-23 J/K, T = absolute temperature in Kelvin) Light quantum absorption: h (h = Plancks Constant, h = 6.626x10-34 Js, = frequency of the light quantum in s-1). If the energy absorbed by the electron exceeds that of the bandgap, they can leave the valence-band and enter the conduction-band:

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

energy-states in semiconductors physical properties:

thermal viewpoint: The larger the bandgap the lower is the conductivity. Increasing temperature reduces the electrical resistance (NTC, negative temperature coefficient resistor) optical viewpoint: the larger the bandgap the lower is the absorption of light quantums. Increasing light irradiation decreases the electrical resistance (Photoresistor)
4.6.07 - 6.6.07 Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de 9

doping of semiconductors
In order to avoid recombination of photo-induced charges and to extract their energy to an electric-device we need a kind of internal barrier. This can be achieved by doping of semiconductors:

Doping means in this case the replacement of original atoms of the semiconductor-material (e.g. Si) by different ones (with slightly different electron configuration). Semiconductors like Silicon have four covalent electrons, doping is done e.g. with Boron or Phosphorus:

IIIB IVB VB
5

B
14 15

Si P

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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N - Doping
crystal view
energy-band view
conduction-band

Si
-

Si
-

Si
P+

P+

P+

P+

majority carriers

Si Si

Si P+ Si

Si Si

EF

P+

donator level

n-conducting Silicon

valence-band

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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P - Doping
crystal

energy-band view
conduction band

Si Si Si

Si BSi Si

Si Si Si
valence-band EF acceptor level majority carriers

B+

B+

B+

B+

B+

p-conducting Silicon

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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p/n-junction without light

Band pattern view
depletion-zone Diffusion U
d

P+

P+

P+

P+

P+ B+ +

B+

B+

B+

B+

EF

Diffusion Ed

p type region

n type region

internal electrical field

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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irradiated p/n-junction
band pattern view (absorption p-zone)
E = h
depletion-zone

photocurrent U
d

P+

P+

P+

P+

P+ B+ +

B+

B+

B+

B+

EF

Ed

ptype region

ntype region

Internal electrical field

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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p/njunction without irradiation (semiconductor diode)

crystal view
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + diffusion
+

p-silicon

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

+ + + + -

electrical field

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

n-silicon

depletion zone

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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p/njunction with irradiation

crystal view
h
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + p-silicon + + + + + + + + + + + +

+
+

diffusion
-

+ + + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - - - - - - - - - - - n-silicon - -- - - - - - - - - - -

electrical field

drift 4.6.07 - 6.6.07

- - - - - - - - - - - -

depletion zone

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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Charge carrier separation within p/njunction

diffusion:
from zones of high carrier concentration to zones of low carrier concentration (following a gradient of electrochemical potential)

drift:
driven by an electrostatic field established across the device

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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The real Silicon Solar-cell

Front-contact Antireflection- h coating

n-region p-region

~0,2m ~300m

+ + + + + + + + + +

- - - - - - - - - -

+
depletion zone Backside contact

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

IPH
current source

ID RP

RS

ISG USG

IL RL UL

UD
IPH: photocurrent of the solar-cell

ID /UD:
RP:

current and voltage of the internal p-n diode

shunt resistor due to inhomogeneity of the surface and loss-current at the solar-cell edges RS: serial resistor due to resistance of the silicon-bulk and contact material ISG/USG: Solar-cell current and voltage RL/IL/UL: Load-Resistance, current and voltage ISG = IL, USG = UL
4.6.07 - 6.6.07 Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de 19

Solar-Cell characteristics
ID
simplified circuit

diodecharacteristic

ID ISG

RL UD=USG

RL=0
ISG / PSG

RL=
MPP

UD

Load resistance

ISG = I0 = IK IMPP
MPP = Maximum Power Point
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ID

solar-cell characteristics

Power UMPP U0
USG
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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

Solar-cell characteristics

Short-current ISC, I0 or IK:

mostly proportional to irradiation Increases by 0,07% per Kelvin

Open-voltage U0, UOC or VOC:

This is the voltage along the internal diode Increases rapidly with initial irradiation Typical for Silicon: 0,5...0,9V decreases by 0,4% per Kelvin
Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de 21

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Solar cell characteristics

Power (MPP, Maximum Power Point)

UMPP (0,75 ... 0,9) UOC IMPP (0,85 ... 0,95) ISC Power decreases by 0,4% per Kelvin The nominal power of a cell is measured at international defined test conditions (G0 = 1000 W/m2, Tcell = 25C, AM 1,5) in WP (Watt peak).

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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Solar cell characteristics

The fillfactor (FF) of a solar-cell is the relation of electrical power generated (PMPP) and the product of short current IK and open-circuit voltage U0
FF = PMPP / U0 IK The solar-cell efficiency is the relation of the electrical power generated (PMPP) and the light irradiance (AGG,g) impinging on the solar-cell : = PMPP / AGG,g
4.6.07 - 6.6.07 Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de 23

Production process
1. Silicon Wafer-technology (mono- or multi-crystalline)
Most purely silicon
99.999999999%

melting / crystallization Tile-production Plate-production cleaning

Occurence: Siliconoxide (SiO2) Mechanical cutting: = sand Thickness about 300m typical Wafer-size:
10 x 10 cm2 Minimum Thickness:

Quality-control
Wafer
4.6.07 - 6.6.07

about 100m Link to SiO2 + 2C = Si + 2CO

Producers of Silicon Wafers
Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de 24

ProductionProcess
mono- or multicrystalline Silicon crystal growth process

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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Production - Process
Silicon Band-Growth Process EFG: Edge-defined Film-fed Growth Less energy-consumptively than crystal-growth process Thickness: about 100m Only few Silicon waste, since no cutting necessary

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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Production Process
Thin-Film-Process (CIS, CdTe, a:Si, ... )

semiconductor materials are evaporated on large areas

Thickness: about 1m Flexible devices possible less energy-consumptive than c-Silicon-process only few raw material needed Typical production sizes: 1 x 1 m2
4.6.07 - 6.6.07

CIS Module
27

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

Solar-Cell Manufacturer

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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PV-Systems
The basic photovoltaic or solar cell typically produces only a small amount of power. To produce more power, cells can be interconnected to form modules, which can in turn be connected into arrays to produce yet more power. Because of this modularity, PV systems can be designed to meet any electrical requirement, no matter how large or how small.
4.6.07 - 6.6.07 Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de 29

PV Module
A PV-Module usually is assembled by a certain amount of series-connected solar-cells

typical open-.circuit Voltage using 36 cells: 36 * 0,7V = 25V

Problem: due to series connection, the failure of one cell (defective or shadow) reduces the current through all cells!
4.6.07 - 6.6.07 Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de 30

PV Module
in order to avoid this kind of failure, cells or cell strings are bypassed by diodes which shortcut the defective or shaded cell(s) :

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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Grid-connected PV-System
SolarGenerator protection- inverter Diode (virtual
load)

load

utilitygrid

DC

Grid
AC The grid is involved as a temporary energy storage

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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PV Solar Home System (SHS)

with AC-Load SolarGenerator
ProtectionDiode

chargeregulator

Accumulator (storage)

inverter

load

DC
DC

Fuse

DC AC

Main difference to a grid connected System: - a local DC energy storage and DC/DC regulator is necessary - an additional DC/AC converter is necessary
4.6.07 - 6.6.07 Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de 33

4. Building Integrated PV
PV as a multifunctional part of buildings
Examples further informationen

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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4.1 Weather Protection

Rain and wind tightness
storm resistant

climate-change resistant
durable

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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Example:
Utility Tower in Duisburg

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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Example: roof

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Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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4.2 Thermal insulation

In combination with usual heat-insulating materials In combination with heat insulating glass

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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4.3 Heating / Air conditioning

Combination of PV and thermal Energyconversion (Air / Water) Optimization of PV Efficiency

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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Information sources in the Internet (selected)

U.S. Department of Energy (http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/technologies.html) and links within these pages Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cells) and links within this page Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

4.6.07 - 6.6.07

Clemson Summer School 2007 Dr. Karl Molter / FH Trier / molter@fh-trier.de

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