MCS MCS

Satellite Communication
System
VSAT
Contents
Introduction
Applications
Implementation
Access Control
Access Methods
Interference, Modulation and Coding
Earth Stations
2
Introduction
VSAT = Very Small Aperture Terminal
Early Earth Stations in commercial systems were
very large and expensive (30 m).
Need to make system more affordable to end user:
Increased transmit power from satellite.
Higher frequencies
Result: Smaller ES antenna size required.


3
Large Antenna Systems
Breakpoint between large and small antennas is
at about 100 wavelengths.
Above breakpoint, back-fed configurations such as
Cassegrain or Gregorian are economically and
technically viable (subreflectors need to be at least
10 wavelengths).
Below breakpoint, terminals called Small Aperture
Terminals.
Smaller Antennas Tighter Link Budgets

4
Typical Antenna Sizes
At C-band: below 5 meters (100 wavelength at 6
GHz).
Extrapolation of terminology:
USAT = Ultra Small Aperture Terminal.
Standard VSAT antennas (Intelsat tables)
Smaller antennas are also included in the concept of
VSAT or USAT (DTH, MSS, etc). These systems will
be studied separately in this course.

5
6
Intelsat Standard for VSAT antennas
Table 9.1
Summary of Characteristics for the INTELSAT VSAT IBS Antennas
From INTELSAT Earth Station Standards (IESS) 207 (C-Band) and 208 (Ku-Band) (2)

C-Band Antenna
Standard

F1

H4

H3

H2

G/T (4 GHz), dB/K

22.7

22.1

18.3

15.1

Typical Antenna Diameter,
m

3.5 5.0

3.5 3.8

2.4

1.8
Voltage Axial Ratio
(Circular Polarization):
XPD
Isolation Value, dB:

1.09

27.3 dB

1.09

27.3 dB

1.3

17.7 dB

1.3

17.7 dB

Ku-Band Antenna
Standard

E1

K3

K2

G/T (11 GHz), dB/K

25.0

23.3

19.8

Typical Antenna Diameter,
m

2.4 3.5

1.8

1.2
Voltage Axial Ratio
(Linear Polarization):
XPD
Isolation Value, dB:

31.6

30.0 dB

20.0

26.0 dB

20.0

26.0 dB

APPLICATIONS
7
VSAT SYSTEMS
Underlying objective of VSAT Systems:
bring the service directly to the end-user
Major reasons for doing this
Reduce hierarchical distribution network (make
more efficient and faster - e.g. POS credit)
Reduce distribution costs
Leapfrog technology in developing countries
(e.g. VSAT/WLL)
8
Point of Service
9
VSAT/WLL - 1
Telecommunications and roads are the two major
economic growth requirements for developing
countries
Major telecommunications infrastructure does not
exist in many developing countries
SOLUTION
Distribute links to communities by
satellite/VSAT
Use Wireless Local Loop from the VSAT
VSAT/WLL - 2
The geostationary satellite is used to link a large
number of VSATs with the main switching center in
a large city.
Each VSAT acts as the link to the local switching
center in the village or rural community, with the
final mile of the telephony link being carried over a
Wireless Local Loop.



10
11
VSAT/WLL - 3
VSAT/WLL 4
User density dependency
Economic advantages of VSAT/WLL solution
depends primarily on user density.
Physical distances, major transportation routes, and
geographic barriers, as well as the individual
countrys demographics and political influences, can
alter the breakpoints.
12
Motivation to use VSAT/WLL
13
The last mile problem
Hard to reach areas
Reliability
Time to deploy (4-6 months vs. 4-6 weeks)
Flexibility
Cost
VS
VSAT/WLL 5
User density dependency
14
Approximate economic break-points in the implementation choices for
serving new regions with different population densities.
User Density in number of users per square
kilometer
~10 Users/km
2
~100 Users/km
2
~0 Users/km
2
~1000 Users/km
2

Uneconomic:
Requires
Large subsidy for
any implementation
VSAT/WLL:
appears the best
technological
implementation
Fiber/Microwave FS:
Traditional terrestrial Fixed
Service appears the best
technological
implementation
15
POS/VSAT
Handles small traffic streams.
Intermittent traffic stream: Demand Assigned
Multiple Access (DAMA)
Message sent to main hub (usually a request for
credit authorization), short message received in
response. Transaction transparent to the user.

IMPLEMENTATIONS
16
17
VSAT IMPLEMENTATION - 1
There are several ways VSAT services might be
implemented
One-Way (e.g. TV Broadcasting satellites)
Split-Two-Way (Split IP) Implementation
(return link from user is not via the satellite; e.g.
DirecTV)
Two-Way Implementation (up- and down-link)
We will be looking at Two-Way Implementation only
18
VSAT IMPLEMENTATION - 2
There are basically two ways to implement a VSAT
Architecture

STAR
VSATs are linked via a HUB
MESH
VSATs are linked together without going
through a large hub
19
VSAT IMPLEMENTATION - 3
Higher Propagation delay
Used by TDMA VSATs
High central hub investment
Smaller VSAT antenna sizes (1.8 m
typically)
Lower VSAT costs
Ideally suited for interactive
data applications
Large organizations, like banks, with
centralized data processing requirements
Lower Propagation delay (250 ms)
Used by PAMA/DAMA VSATs
Lower central hub investment
larger VSAT antenna sizes (3.8 m typically)
Higher VSAT costs
Suited for high data traffic
Telephony applications and point-to-point
high-speed links
VSAT STAR ARCHITECTURE - 2
In this network architecture, all of the traffic is
routed via the master control station, or Hub.
If a VSAT wishes to communicate with another
VSAT, they have to go via the hub, thus necessitating
a double hop link via the satellite.
Since all of the traffic radiates at one time or another
from the Hub, this architecture is referred to as a
STAR network.
20
21
VSAT STAR ARCHITECTURE - 2
Master Control Station
(The Hub)
VSAT
Community
All communications to and
from each VSAT is via the
Master Control Station or
Hub
22
VSAT STAR ARCHITECTURE - 3
Satellite HUB
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
Topology of a STAR VSAT network viewed from the satellites perspective
Note how the VSAT communications links are routed via the satellite to the
Hub in all cases.
VSAT MESH ARCHITECTURE - 1
In this network architecture, each of the VSATs has
the ability to communicate directly with any of the
other VSATs.
Since the traffic can go to or from any VSAT, this
architecture is referred to as a MESH network.
It will still be necessary to have network control
and the duties of the hub can either be handled by
one of the VSATs or the master control station
functions can be shared amongst the VSATs.
23
VSAT MESH ARCHITECTURE - 2
24
VSAT
Community
25
VSAT MESH ARCHITECTURE - 3
Satellite
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
VSAT
Topology of a MESH VSAT network from the satellites perspective

Note how all of the VSATs communicate directly to each other via the satellite without
passing through a larger master control station (Hub).
26
ADVANTAGES OF STAR
Small uplink EIRP of VSAT (which can be a hand-
held telephone unit) compensated for by large G/T
of the Hub earth station
Small downlink G/T of user terminal compensated
for by large EIRP of Hub earth station
Can be very efficient when user occupancy is low on
a per-unit-time basis
27
DISADVANTAGES OF STAR
VSAT terminals cannot communicate directly
with each other; they have to go through the hub
VSAT-to-VSAT communications are necessarily
double-hop
GEO STAR networks requiring double-hops may
not meet user requirements from a delay
perspective
28
ADVANTAGES OF MESH
Users can communicate directly with each other
without being routed via a Hub earth station
VSAT-to-VSAT communications are single-hop
GEO MESH networks can be made to meet user
requirements from a delay perspective
29
DISADVANTAGES OF MESH
Low EIRP and G/T of user terminals causes
relatively low transponder occupancy
With many potential user-to-user connections
required, the switching requirements in the
transponder will almost certainly require On-
Board Processing (OBP) to be employed
OBP is expensive in terms of payload mass and
power requirements
ACCESS CONTROL
30
Access Control Protocols
International Standards Organization has specified
the Open Systems Interconnection ISO/OSI.
ISO-OSI considers a seven layer stack for
interconnecting data terminals. Conceptual model.
Satellite Link occupies the physical layer (bits
transport)
VSAT Network must have terminal controllers at
each end of the link (network and link layers).
Network control center is responsible for the
remaining layers.
31
ACCESS CONTROL PROTOCOLS
32















USER ONE USER TWO
APPLICATION

PRESENTATION

SESSION

TRANSPORT

NETWORK

LINK

PHYSICAL
APPLICATION

PRESENTATION

SESSION

TRANSPORT

NETWORK

LINK

PHYSICAL
Access Control Protocols
In this example, User One and User Two are
conducting a two-way communications session with
each other. Each user interacts with their local
device (e.g. a computer keyboard/visual display
unit) at the Application Layer of the ISO-OSI stack.
Their transaction is then routed via the various
layers, with suitable conversions, etc., until the
content is ready to be transmitted via the physical
layer (where the satellite link is).
33
Delay Considerations
Satellite Scenario:
Typical slant path range for GEO satellite: 39,000 km
One way transmission: ESSatelliteES: 2 x Range
One way delay: 2 x (range/velocity) = 260 ms
Fiber Optic Transcontinental Link:
4000 km or about 13 ms delay
Additionally to either case: Processing delay.
Several tens to over a hundred ms.

34
35
DELAY CONSIDERATIONS - 1
0 ms
60 ms
120 ms
Time Line of User
No.1 (the sender)
Time Line of User
No. 2 (the receiver)
A1
A2
Rolling Time Window of 60 ms
B1
B2
Signal transmission
continues in an
uninterrupted stream
between User 1 and
User 2 since User 1
receives the
acknowledgement
signals from User 2
within the required
time of 60 ms.
10 ms one-way delay
Typical on
terrestrial links
DELAY CONSIDERATIONS - 2
Previous Slide: Illustration of a communications link with a
10 ms one-way delay and a 60 ms window
In this example, a packet or frame is sent at instant A1 from
User 1 to User 2. User 2 receives the transmission without
error and sends an acknowledgement back, which is received
at instant A2, 20 ms after the initial transmission from User
1. This is well within the time window of 60 ms. The time
window rolls forward after each successful
acknowledgement. Thus the transmission from User 1 at
instant B1 is received by User 2, and the acknowledgement
received by User 2 at instant B2, within the new rolling time
window of 60 ms. Each packet or frame is successfully
received in this example.

36
37
DELAY CONSIDERATIONS - 3
0 ms
120 ms
240 ms
Time Line of User
No.1 (the sender)
Time Line of User
No. 2 (the receiver)
A1
C1
Rolling Time Window of 60 ms
B1
D1
360 ms
480 ms
There are no signal
transmissions from
User 1 to User 2 in
these two intervals
because the rolling
60 ms window has
timed out in the
protocol used by
User 1 since no
acknowledgement
signals have been
received from User
2 in the required
interval of 60 ms.
A2
B2
C2
D2
260 ms one-way delay
DELAY CONSIDERATIONS - 4
Previous Slide: Illustration of a communications link with a
260 ms one-way delay and a 60 ms window
In this example, a packet or frame is sent at instant A1 from
User 1 to User 2. User 2 receives the transmission without
error and sends an acknowledgement back, which is received
at instant A2, 260 ms after the initial transmission from User
1. Unfortunately, instant A2 is well after the rolling window
time out of 60 ms. Transmissions from User 1 are
automatically shut down by the protocol when the time out
of 60 ms is exceeded. Ignoring processing delays in this
example, User 1 is only transmitting for 60 ms in every 260
ms, thus drastically lowering the throughput. Again, no
propagation errors are assumed to occur.

38
Protocol Changes - 1
VSAT protocol acts as processing buffer to separate the
satellite network form the terrestrial network (spoofing).
VSAT networks are normally maintained as independent,
private networks, with the packetization handled at the user
interface units of the VSAT terminals.
The satellite access protocol (with a larger time-out
window) is handled in the VSAT/Hub Network kernel, which
also handles packet addressing, congestion control, packet
routing and switching, and network management functions.
Protocol conversion and, if necessary, emulation is handled
by the Gateway equipment.

39
40
PROTOCOL CHANGES
Fig. 2.2.1 of VSAT Systems and Earth Stations, Supplement No. 3 to the Handbook
on Satellite Communications, International Telecommunications Union, Geneva, 1994
(for updates on this handbook, please refer to http://www.itu.int)
Design Considerations
Using basic concepts introduced in TCOM507: Link Budget,
Multiple access, Modulation Schemes.
Frequency Allocation: Considered a Fixed Satellite Service
(FSS), allocation frequencies at :
C band (4/6 GHz)
Ku band (14/11 GHz) increasingly common today
Ka band (30/20 GHz) considered for future applications
Small antennas Small sensitivity (small G/T).
Restrictions in transmitted power flux density from satellite
to satisfy regulatory restrictions due to frequency sharing
with terrestrial systems (C band). A common solution is to
use spread-spectrum techniques.

41
ACCESS METHODS
42
Multiple Access Possibilities
Choice aiming to maximize the use of common satellite and
other resources amongst all VSAT sites.
Methods considered:
Pre-Assigned Multiple Access (PAMA)
Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA)
FDMA = Frequency Division Multiple Access
TDMA = Time Division Multiple Access
Fixed Assigned TDMA
ALOHA & Slotted ALOHA
Dynamic Reservation
CDMA = Code Division Multiple Access

43
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
Here all VSATs share the satellite resource on the frequency
domain only.
Allows smaller receiver bandwidth (less noise power)
Smaller maximum transmit power requirements.
Operates both in star and mesh topologies.
Example:
QPSK (M=2), 64 kbps (Ri), FEC (k/n= ), roll-off 0.5 (a)
Rb = Ri/r = 128 kbps
Rs = Rb/M = 64 kbauds
Transmit bandwith = Bt = (1 + a) * Rs = 96 kHz
(Allow guard band for frequency drift : 120 kHz)
Receive bandwidth = Br = Rs = 64 kHz

44
45
64 kbit/s equivalent
voice channel
Information rate
= 64kbit/s
Terrestrial/VSAT
network interface
Terrestrial channel from
User equipment
Transmission
bandwidth = 96 kHz
36 MHz Satellite transponder f1 f2
Uplink
Transmission
from VSAT terminal
Inbound Channels from the
VSATs
300 FDMA channels
QPSK Modulation
plus - rate FEC
Schematic of a 64 kbit/s equivalent voice channel accessing a satellite using FDMA
Inbound link:
VSATs Satellite Hub Station
Example: Star - Inbound Link - FDMA
Star Inbound FDMA Example (cont.)
The 64 kbit/s information rate is contained in a bandwidth of
96 kHz when transmitted to the satellite.
The bandwidth of the satellite transponder (from frequency
f1 to frequency f2) is divided up, or channelized, into
increments of 96 kHz so that a large number of VSATs can
access the transponder at the same time.
Each of the 96 kHz channels requires a certain amount of
spectrum on either side to guard against drift in frequency,
poor VSAT filtering, etc. The 96 kHz channels plus the guard
bands on either side add up to a channel allocation of about
120 kHz per VSAT.
46
Star Inbound FDMA Example (cont.)
From a spectrum allocation viewpoint, therefore, a typical 36
MHz satellite transponder would permit the simultaneous
access of 300 VSATs, each of which is transmitting the
equivalent of a 64 kbit/s voice channel.
Because each VSAT uses a single channel continuously on the
uplink, it is often referred to as SCPC - Single Channel Per
Carrier - FDMA.

47
FDMA Implementation Options
PAMA (Pre Assigned Multiple Access) - implies that the
VSATs are pre-allocated a designated frequency. Equivalent
of the terrestrial leased line solutions, PAMA solutions use
the satellite resources constantly. Consequently there is no
call setup delay which makes them most suited for
interactive data applications or high traffic volumes . As such
PAMA is used typically to connect high data traffic sites
within an organization. SCPC (Single Channel Per Carrier)
refers to the usage of a single satellite carrier for carrying a
single channel of user traffic. The frequency is allocated on a
pre-assigned basis in case of SCPC VSAT's. The term SCPC
VSAT is often used interchangeably with PAMA VSAT.

48
FDMA Implementation Options
DAMA (Demand Assigned Multiple Access) - network uses a
pool of satellite channels, which are available for use by any
station in that network. On demand a pair of available
channels are assigned so that a call can be established. Once
the call is completed, the channels are returned to the pool
for an assignment to another call. Since the satellite resource
is used only in proportion to the active circuits and their
holding times, this is ideally suited for voice traffic and data
traffic in batch mode. DAMA offers point to point voice, fax,
and data requirements and supports video conferencing.

49
Outbound Link - TDM
Return link: HubSatelliteVSATs
Star Topology: typically a single, wide-band stream in Time
Division Multiplexing (TDM) format
50
Note: What is the difference between TDM and TDMA???
(usually used interchangeably, but not exactly the same)
Satellite Communication System
8 May, 2014
51
Answer: In TDM, all multiplexed data channels come
from the same transmitter, which means that clock and
carrier frequencies do not change. In TDMA, each
frame contains a number of independent transmissions
(time slots contain information from different data
sources usually transmitted from different locations).
52
Example: Outbound Link - TDM
64 kbit/s
equivalent
voice channel
Combined channel
rate 20 Mbit/s
Terrestrial channel to
User equipment
Transmission
bandwidth 36 MHz
36 MHz Satellite transponder
f1
f2
Outbound TDM stream from
the hub via the satellite
Downlink outbound
TDM stream from the hub, via the
satellite, to each VSAT terminal
Demultiplexing the combined
channel into the individual
equivalent 64 kbit/s channels
Pick off the required 64 kbit/s signal
that is intended for this VSAT from
the demultiplexed channel stream
Demodulation and
decoding
Terrestrial/VSAT
network interface
Schematic of the TDM
downlink outbound
channel from the hub, via
the satellite, to the
individual VSAT terminals
Example: Outbound Link TDM (cont.)
The 300 individual, narrow-band, inbound channels
received at the hub from the VSATs are sent back to the
VSATs in a single, wide-band, outbound TDM stream at a
combined transmission rate 20 Mbit/s.
Each VSAT receives the downlink TDM stream and then
demodulates and decodes it (i.e. changes the modulated
bandpass signal into a baseband line code and removes the
FEC).
53
Example: Outbound Link TDM (cont.)
The line code is then passed through a demultiplexer which
is used to extract the required part of the stream that
contains the equivalent 64 kbit/s voice channel destined for
that VSAT terminal.
Carrier recovery and bit recovery circuits are used in the
receiver in order to be able to identify the exact position of
the required VSAT channel in time. The bandwidth of the
satellite transponder (from frequency f1 to frequency f2) is
fully occupied in this example.

54
55
Transponder Sharing:
TDM-Outbound, FDMA-Inbound
36 MHz satellite transponder
Inbound narrow-band VSAT channels
Outbound wide-band TDM stream
In the example here, 18 MHz of spectrum is allocated for each side of the system
connection. On the uplink to the satellite, the collection of FDMA narrow-band
channels transmitted by the VSATs co-exists in the same transponder with the
wide-band TDM stream transmitted up by the hub. On the downlink from the
satellite, the hub receives the collection of individual narrow-band channels while
the wide-band TDM downlink stream is received by each VSAT. The precise
frequency assignment can vary to suit the capacity of the VSAT network.
Another option for Inbound Link
Multi-Frequency TDMA (MF-TDMA)
If we used TDMA instead of FDMA, in the example, each VSAT
would have to be able to transmit (at discontinuous
intervals) at a power much higher than that need by one
single channel (larger bandwidth).
Solution Hybrid TDMA-FDMA approach
Each VSAT transmits a burst rate at 5 times the bandwidth of
a normal single VSAT single-channel rate.
Equivalent to say that each frequency is shared in 5 time-
slots, one for each VSAT.
Saves power at VSAT transmitter compared to pure TDMA.

56
57
Example: Inbound MF-TDMA
A B C D E
In-bound, downlink TDM
stream to the hub
Hub
In-bound,
uplink MF-
TDMA VSAT
bursts
Example: Inbound MF-TDMA (cont.)
In this particular case, each group of five VSAT terminals (A,
B, C, D, and E) share the same frequency assignment, that is
they all transmit at the same frequency.
However, they each have a unique time slot in the TDMA
frame when they transmit, so that they do not interfere with
each other.
The bursts from each VSAT are timed to arrive at the
satellite in the correct sequence for onward transmission to
the hub.
Other frequencies (not shown in the picture) shared among
other groups of five VSATs.

58
CDMA Option
Adds spectral efficiency in interference-limited
environments (facilitates frequency reuse).
Allows reception below noise floor due to signal spreading in
larger bandwidth (spread-spectrum).
Initially employed for encryption and military purposes.
Off-axis emission is closely specified by the ITU-R and is a
key element in Up-Link Power Control design. When LEO
constellations are sharing the same frequency bands as GEO
systems, the use of CDMA may confer some advantages for
coordination purposes at the expense of system capacity.

59
60
How a VSAT can cause
interference to other satellite systems
2
o

2
o

Geostationary orbit arc:
satellites at 2
o
spacing
VSAT
WSAT
USAT(1
)
USAT(2
)
Beamwidth of
VSAT
In this example, the VSAT is
transmitting to a wanted satellite
(WSAT) but, because the antenna
of the VSAT is small, its beam will
illuminate two other adjacent,
unwanted satellites (USATs) that
are 2
o
away in the geostationary
arc.
In a like manner, signals from
USAT (1) and USAT(2) can be
received by the VSAT, thus causing
the potential for interference if the
frequencies and polarizations used
are the same.
INTERFERENCE, MODULATION
AND CODING
61
62
Interference Scenario - 1
Main lobe and
first sidelobes of
VSAT antenna
Gain, G
w
(dB), in
the direction of the
wanted satellite
Gain, G
u
(dB), in the
direction of the
interfered-with satellite
Path to the satellite which
will have a fixed path loss
and a variable loss due to
propagation impairments
WSA
T
USA
T
VSAT with an
HPA power of
P (dBW)
Gain of the antenna of the
interfered-with satellite, G
s
(dB),
towards the VSAT
Interference Scenario - 2
Previous slide shows the interference geometry between a
VSAT and a satellite of another system.
The EIRP of the VSAT towards the interfered-with satellite
[P(dBW) + Gu(dB)] is the interference power from the VSAT
into the interfered-with satellite.
To develop the interference link budget, the Gain of the
interfered-with satellite in the direction of the VSAT, Gs(dB),
would be used, plus any additional effects along the path
(such as site shielding, if used, expected rain effects for given
time percentages, etc.)

63
Coding and Modulation
Modulation Scheme:
High index modulation schemes use bandwidth more
effectively.
High index modulation schemes also require more link
margin, more amplifier linearity.
They are also more susceptible to interference and harder to
implement.
Typically systems work with BPSK or QPSK.
Coding Scheme:
Inner code.
Outer interleaving code (Reed-Solomon) to protect against
burstiness.

64
EARTH STATIONS
65
VSAT Earth Station - 1
66
Outdoor Unit (ODU)
Inter-facility link (IFL)
Indoor Unit (IDU)
VSAT Earth Station - 2
The VSAT Outdoor Unit (ODU) is located where it will have a
clear line of sight to the satellite and is free from casual
blockage by people and/or equipment moving in front of it. It
includes the Radio Frequency Trasceiver (RFT).
The Inter Facility Link (IFL) carries the electronic signal
between the ODU and the Indoor Unit (IDU) as well as power
cables for the ODU and control signals from the IDU.
The IDU is normally housed in a desktop computer at the
Users workstation and consists of the baseband processor
units and interface equipment (e.g. computer screen and
keyboard). The IDU will also house the modem and
multiplexer/demultilexer (mux/demux) units if these are not
already housed in the ODU.
67
68
VSAT Earth Station - Block Diagram
Antenna
Feed
LNC
HPC
DEM
MOD
To
Data
Terminal
Equipment
IFL
Outdoor Unit (ODU) Indoor Unit (IDU)
RFT
Base Band
Processor
(BBP)
RFT
IFL
IDU
VSAT Earth Station Blocks Description
The Low Noise Converter (LNC) takes the received
RF signal and, after amplification, mixes it down to
IF for passing over the inter facility link (IFL) to the
IDU.
In the IDU, the demodulator extracts the
information signal from the carrier and passes it at
base band to the Base Band Processor.
69
VSAT Earth Station Blocks Description
The data terminal equipment then provides the application
layer for the user to interact with the information input. On
the transmit operation, the user inputs data via the terminal
equipment to the baseband processor and from there to the
modulator.
The modulator places the information on a carrier at IF and
this is sent via the inter facility link to the High Power
Converter (HPC) for upconversion to RF, amplification, and
transmission via the antenna to the satellite.
70
71
Hub Station - 1
HP
A
LN
A
UC
DC

I
F

I
N
T
E
R
F
A
C
E
Outbound
Modulators
Inbound
Demodulat
ors

Transmit
PCE

Receive
PCE
Outbound
TDM
Channels
Inbound
MF-TDMA
Channels

C
O
N
T
R
O
L



B
U
S

HUB
Control
Interface





Network Control Center
Line
Inter-
Face
Equip-
ment
To
Host
Comp-
uters
Hub
antenna
Hub Station - 2
The line interface equipment handles the terrestrial ports to
the host computer.
The control bus via the hub control interface allows all of the
transmit, receive, and switching functions to be carried out.
The transmit Processing and Control Equipment (PCE)
prepares the TDM stream for the outbound link to the VSATs.
This stream passes through the IF interface (the equivalent
of the interfacility link of the VSAT) to the Up-Converter (UC)
that mixes the IF to RF.
72
Hub Station - 2
The High Power Amplifier (HPA) amplifies the TDM stream
and the antenna transmits the signal.
On the receive side, the antenna passes the individual
inbound MF-TDMA signals to the Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
for amplification prior to Down Conversion (DC),
demodulation, and so on to the user.

73

Satellite Communication System
8 May, 2014
74
MCS MCS


Global Positioning
System (GPS)
75
GPS Creation
The U.S. Department of Defense decided that the military had
to have a very precise form of worldwide positioning.
And fortunately they had the kind of money ($12 Billion!) it
took to build it.

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What is GPS
Worldwide radio-navigation system formed from a
constellation of 24 satellites and their ground
stations.
Uses satellites as reference points to calculate
positions accurate to a matter of meters (advanced
forms of GPS can achieve centimeter accuracy).
GPS receivers miniaturized and becoming very
economical and accessible to the end users.
Applications in cars, boats, planes, construction
equipment, movie making gear, farm machinery, etc.
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GPS Satellites
Name: NAVSTAR Manufacturer: Rockwell
International
Altitude: 10,900 nautical miles
Weight:1900 lbs (in orbit)
Size:17 ft with solar panels extended
Orbital Period: 12 hours
Orbital Plane: 55 degrees to equitorial plane
Planned Lifespan: 7.5 years
Current constellation: 24 Block II production
satellites
Future satellites: 21 Block IIrs developed by
Martin Marietta.
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Ground Control Stations
Also known as the "Control Segment.
Monitor the GPS satellites, checking both their operational
health and their exact position in space.
The master ground station transmits corrections for the
satellite's ephemeris constants and clock offsets back to the
satellites themselves.
The satellites can then incorporate these updates in the
signals they send to GPS receivers.
There are five monitor stations: Hawaii, Ascension Island,
Diego Garcia, Kwajalein, and Colorado Springs.

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How GPS works
1. The basis of GPS is "triangulation" from satellites
(formally speaking, trilateration).
2. To "triangulate," a GPS receiver measures distance using
the travel time of radio signals.
3. To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate timing
which it achieves with some specific techniques.
4. Along with distance, the receiver needs to know exactly
where the satellites are in space. High orbits and careful
monitoring contribute to this accuracy.
5. Finally the receiver must correct for any delays the signal
experiences as it travels through the atmosphere.
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We will see each step next
1 - Triangulation from Satellites
Use satellites in space as reference points for location on
earth.
How does the knowledge of distance from three (or more)
satellites allow the position determination?
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Triangulation - Basics
1. Position is calculated from distance measurements
(ranges) to satellites.

2. Mathematically we need four satellite ranges to
determine exact position.

3. Three ranges are enough if we reject ridiculous
answers or use other auxiliary.

4. Another range is required for technical reasons to
be discussed later.
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Distance to one satellite
Suppose we measure our distance from a satellite and find it to be
11,000 miles. (How we measure that distance is the subject of
further discussion)
Knowing that we're 11,000 miles from a particular satellite
narrows down all the possible locations we could be in the whole
universe to the surface of a sphere that is centered on this satellite
and has a radius of 11,000 miles.
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Distance to two satellites
Next, suppose we measure our distance to a second satellite and
find out that it's 12,000 miles away.
That tells us that we're not only on the first sphere but we're also
on a sphere that's 12,000 miles from the second satellite. Or in
other words, we're somewhere on the circle where these two
spheres intersect.
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11,000
miles sphere
12,000
miles sphere
Distance to three satellites
If we then make a measurement from a third satellite and find that
we're 13,000 miles from that one, that narrows our position down
even farther, to the two points where the 13,000 mile sphere cuts
through the circle that's the intersection of the first two spheres.
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11,000
miles sphere
12,000
miles sphere
13,000
miles sphere
Three measurements put us at
one of these two points
Triangulation - Summary
By ranging from three satellites we can narrow our position
to just two points in space.
To decide which one is our true location we could make a
fourth measurement. But usually one of the two points is a
ridiculous answer (either too far from Earth or an impossible
velocity) and can be rejected without a measurement.
A fourth measurement does come in very handy for another
reason however, but we will see that later.
Next we'll see how the system measures distances to
satellites.

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2 - Measuring distance from a
satellite
From last section: position is calculated from
distance measurements to at least three satellites.
But how to measure the distance?
Solution: By timing how long it takes for a signal
sent from the satellite to arrive at the receiver.


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Speed of light: c = 300,000 km/sec
Distance to satellite is d = c x T
d
The problem is measuring the travel time.

Measuring Travel Time
A Pseudo Random Code (PRC) is transmitted from each satellite.
Physically it's a pseudo-random sequence of "on" and "off" pulses.
Receiver knows the time of transmission of the satellite sequence.
By synchronizing the received sequence with a locally generated
sequence, the receiver can identify the relative delay between the
satellite and its location.
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Transmission
from satellite
Reception at
GPS receiver
Td = Time elapsed between
satellite and receiver
Reasons for using pseudo random
sequences
Avoid accidental synchronism with other interfering signal. The patterns
are so complex that it's highly unlikely that a stray signal will have exactly
the same shape.
Since each satellite has its own unique Pseudo-Random Code they allow
satellite identification. So all the satellites can use the same frequency.
Pseudo-random sequences also make it more difficult for a hostile force
to jam the system. In fact the Pseudo Random Code gives the DoD a way
to control access to the system.
Most importantly, the spread-spectrum effect gives spreading gain, which
allows the receiver to amplify the signal at de-spreading. This enhances
the link budget and allows economical GPS receiver (portable units with
low gain antennas).
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GPS Signals
The GPS satellites transmit signals on two carrier
frequencies.
The L1 carrier is 1575.42 MHz and carries both the status
message and a pseudo-random code for timing.
The L2 carrier is 1227.60 MHz and is used for the more
precise military pseudo-random code.

Navigation Message: low frequency signal added to
the L1 codes that gives information about the
satellite's orbits, their clock corrections and other
system status.
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Pseudo-Random Codes
There are two types of pseudo-random code.
The first pseudo-random code is called the C/A (Coarse Acquisition)
code. It modulates the L1 carrier. It repeats every 1023 bits and
modulates at a 1MHz rate. Each satellite has a unique pseudo-random
code. The C/A code is the basis for civilian GPS use. CA code is at 1.024
Mbps.
The second pseudo-random code is called the P (Precise) code. It repeats
on a seven day cycle and modulates both the L1 and L2 carriers at a
10MHz rate. This code is intended for military users and can be
encrypted. When it's encrypted it's called "Y" code. Since P code is more
complicated than C/A it's more difficult for receivers to acquire. That's
why many military receivers start by acquiring the C/A code first and
then move on to P code. P code is at 10.24 Mbps.
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Summary Measuring Distances
1. Distance to a satellite is determined by measuring how
long a radio signal takes to reach the user from that
satellite.
2. To make the measurement we assume that both the
satellite and the users receiver are generating the same
pseudo-random codes at exactly the same time.
3. By comparing how late the satellite's pseudo-random code
appears compared to the receiver's code, the receiver
determines how long the signal took to reach it.
4. Multiply that travel time by the speed of light and you've
got distance.
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Summary Measuring Distances
1. Distance to a satellite is determined by measuring how
long a radio signal takes to reach the user from that
satellite.
2. To make the measurement we assume that both the
satellite and the users receiver are generating the same
pseudo-random codes at exactly the same time.
3. By comparing how late the satellite's pseudo-random code
appears compared to the receiver's code, the receiver
determines how long the signal took to reach it.
4. Multiply that travel time by the speed of light and you've
got distance.
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But to measure the time a perfect synchronism would be required!!
3 - Timing
Timing is critical: 1ms means a 200 mile error!
Remember that both the satellite and the receiver need
to be able to precisely synchronize their pseudo-random
codes to make the system work.
On the satellite side, timing is almost perfect because
they have incredibly precise atomic clocks on board.
But what about receivers on the ground?
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Position error due to wrong
timing

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Timing at receivers
If our receivers needed atomic clocks (which cost
upwards of $50K to $100K) GPS would be non-
economical.
Solution to this problem is to make an extra satellite
measurement.
This is one of the key elements of GPS and as an added
side benefit it means that every GPS receiver is
essentially an atomic-accuracy clock.
In other words: if three perfect measurements can
locate a point in 3-dimensional space, then four
imperfect measurements can do the same thing.
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How timing works at receivers
If timing was perfect (i.e. if receiver's clocks were perfect) then
all satellite ranges would intersect at a single point (which is the
receivers position). But with imperfect clocks, a fourth measurement,
done as a cross-check, will NOT intersect with the first three.
So the receiver's computer can detect the discrepancy in time
measurements and recognize that it is out of synchronism with universal
time.
Since any offset from universal time will affect all of receiver
measurements, the receiver looks for a single correction factor that it can
subtract from all its timing measurements that would cause them all to
intersect at a single point.
That correction brings the receiver's clock back into sync with universal
time, providing atomic accuracy time to it.
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How timing works at receivers
(cont.)
Once receiver has the timing correction it applies to all the
rest of its measurements and allows precise positioning.
One consequence of this principle is that any GPS receiver
will need to have at least four channels so that it can make
the four measurements simultaneously.
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But for the triangulation to work we not only
need to know distance, we also need to know
exactly where the satellites are.
In the next section we'll see how we
accomplish that.
Summary - Timing
1. Accurate timing is the key to measuring distance to
satellites.
2. Satellites are accurate because they have atomic clocks on
board.
3. Receiver clocks don't have to be too accurate because an
extra satellite range measurement can remove errors.
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But for the triangulation to work we need not only to
know distance, we also need to know exactly where the
satellites are.
NEXT SECTION

4 - Satellite Position in Space
On the ground all GPS receivers have an almanac
programmed into their computers that tells them
where in the sky each satellite is, moment by
moment.
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Monitoring Satellite Position
Orbits constantly monitored by the Department of
Defense.
They use very precise radar to check each satellite's
exact altitude, position and speed.
Errors in position caused by gravitational pulls from
the moon and sun and by the pressure of solar
radiation on the satellites.
The errors are usually very slight because of high
orbit (MEO), but for accuracy they must be taken
into account.
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Monitoring Satellite Position (cont.)
Once the DoD has measured a satellite's exact
position, they relay that information back up to the
satellite itself. The satellite then includes this new
corrected position information in the timing signals
it's broadcasting.
That is why a GPS signal is more than just pseudo-
random code for timing purposes. It also contains a
navigation message with ephemeris information as
well.
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Summary Satellite Position
1. To use the satellites as references for range
measurements we need to know exactly where they are.
2. GPS satellites are being at high orbits (MEO), are very
predictable.
3. Minor variations in their orbits are measured by the
Department of Defense.
4. The error information is sent to the satellites, to be
transmitted along with the timing signals.
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5 Additional Errors
Assumption distance to a satellite can be calculated by
multiplying a signal's travel time by the speed of light was
simplified so far: speed of light is only constant in a vacuum.
As a GPS signal passes through the charged particles of the
ionosphere and then through the water vapor in the
troposphere it gets slowed down, and this creates the same
kind of error as bad clocks.
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Correcting delay errors
To minimize the errors described, one can predict what a typical delay
might be on a typical day. This is called modeling and provides
considerable improvement but with limitations because atmospheric
conditions are rarely typical.

Another technique to minimize on these atmosphere-induced errors is
to compare the relative speeds of two different signals. This "dual
frequency" measurement is very sophisticated and is only possible
with advanced receivers:
Physics says that as light moves through a given medium, low-
frequency signals get "refracted" or slowed more than high-
frequency signals. By comparing the delays of the two different
carrier frequencies of the GPS signal, L1 and L2, we can deduce
what the medium (i.e. atmosphere) is, and we can correct for it.
Unfortunately this requires a very sophisticated receiver since only
the military has access to the signals on the L2 carrier.

105
Other sources of error
Multipath error: The signal may bounce off various
local obstructions before it gets to our receiver.
Atomic clocks imperfections (small not null).
Position detection errors.
Geometric Dilution of Precision.
Intentional errors (removed in 2000) by the DoD. The
policy was called "Selective Availability" or "SA" and
the idea behind it was to introduce inaccuracies to
make sure that no hostile force or terrorist group
could use GPS to make accurate weapons.


106
Geometric Dilution of Precision
Basic geometry itself can magnify these other errors with a
principle called "Geometric Dilution of Precision" or GDOP.
It sounds complicated but the principle is quite simple.
There are usually more satellites available than a receiver needs
to fix a position, so the receiver picks a few and ignores the rest.
If it picks satellites that are close together in the sky the
intersecting circles that define a position will cross at very
shallow angles. That increases the gray area or error margin
around a position.
If it picks satellites that are widely separated the circles
intersect at almost right angles and that minimizes the error
region.
Good receivers determine which satellites will give the lowest
GDOP.

107
Geometric Dilution of Precision (cont.)

108
Summary - Correcting Errors
1. The earth's ionosphere and atmosphere cause delays
in the GPS signal that translate into position errors.
2. Some errors can be factored out using mathematics
and modeling.
3. The configuration of the satellites in the sky can
magnify other errors.
4. Differential GPS can eliminate almost all error.
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GPS Flavors
"Differential GPS," involves the use of two receivers. One
monitors variations in the GPS signal and communicates those
variations to the other receiver. The second receiver can then
correct its calculations for better accuracy.
"Carrier-phase GPS" takes advantage of the GPS signal's carrier
signal to improve accuracy. The carrier frequency is much
higher than the GPS signal which means it can be used for more
precise timing measurements.
"Augmented GPS" (aviation industry) involves the use of a
geostationary satellite as a relay station for the transmission of
differential corrections and GPS satellite status information.
These corrections are necessary if GPS is to be used for
instrument landings. The geostationary satellite would provide
corrections across an entire continent.
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Differential GPS
Error in position location is bias plus random error.
Bias is same over a wide area caused by delay in
atmosphere, ephemeris error, etc.
Fixed receiver at a known location can measure bias
error.
Radio communication link to user allows removal of
bias error.
Extra receiver and data links increases cost
considerably.
Used to be more essential for civil applications
before removal of Selective Availability (2000).
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GPS Accuracy
C/A (civil): About 10 meters


P (military): Can get down to centimeter with
the use of differential GPS techniques.

112
GPS Applications
Civil Location - determining a basic position
Tracking - monitoring the movement of people and
things. Timing - providing atomic clock precision.
Military: primary targeting and navigation system
for US armed forces.
Surveying: Mapping and locating land areas.
Vehicular Navigation: on-car navigation systems.
Ship navigation: Especially in coastal and inland
waters.
Aircraft navigations and landing: with
development of Augmented GPS by FAA.
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GPS Limitations
Receiver must have line of sight to four or more satellites.
Cannot work indoors of if sky is blocked (by buildings or
other solid obstructions).
Accuracy in vertical dimension is lower than in horizontal.
CA code may be vulnerable to interference and jamming.
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Other options of navigation systems
Landmarks: Only work in local area. Subject to movement or
destruction by environmental factors.
Dead Reckoning:Very complicated. Accuracy depends on
measurement tools which are usually relatively crude. Errors
accumulate quickly.
Celestial:Complicated. Only works at night in good weather.
Limited precision.
OMEGA:Based on relatively few radio direction beacons.
Accuracy limited and subject to radio interference.
LORAN:Limited coverage (mostly coastal). Accuracy
variable, affected by geographic situation. Easy to jam or
disturb.
SatNav:Based on low-frequency doppler measurements so
it's sensitive to small movements at receiver. Few satellites
so updates are infrequent.
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