Observed fracture strength is always lower than theoretical cohesive

strength .
Griffith explained that the discrepancy is due to the inherent defects
in brittle
materials leading to stress concentration implies lower the
fracture strength of the materials.
Crack propagation criterion:
Consider a through thickness crack of length 2a,
subjected to a uniform tensile stress , at infinity.

Crack propagation occurs when the released elastic
strain energy is at least equal to the energy required to
generate new crack surface.
The stress required to create the new crack surface is given
as follows :



In plane strain condition, the equation becomes :


The Griffith equation is strongly dependent on the crack size
a,and satisfies only ideally brittle materials like glass.
However, metals are not ideally brittle and normally fail with
certain amounts of plastic deformation, the fracture stress is
increased due to blunting of the crack tip.
Irwin and Orowan suggested Griffiths equation can be
applied to brittle materials undergone plastic deformation
before fracture by including the plastic work, p, into the
total elastic surface energy required to extend the crack wall,
giving the modified Griffiths equation as follows :

In mode I failure and plane-strain condition, the relationship
between GIC an KIC can be shown by an expression as
follows :



Where K
IC
is the critical stress intensity factor
ilure
Crack deformation
mode.
Fracture modes
Stress intensity factor KIC can be described as fracture
toughness
of materials (material resistance to crack propagation) under
conditions of :
1) brittle fracture
2) in the presence of a sharp crack
3) under critical tensile loading



Where
K
IC
is the critical stress intensity factor for plane strain
condition in mode
failure.
a
c
is the critical crack length in an infinite plate

app
is the applied stress
is a parameter dependent on specimen and crack
geometry
Fracture toughness of material can be determined according
to LEFM analysis
1) KIC fracture toughness :
works well for very high strength materials.
exhibiting brittle fracture
2) Crack tip opening displacement CTOD :
Used for lower strength materials (o < 1400 MPa),
exhibiting small amount of plastic deformation before failure.
3) J-integral (J
IC
) :
Used for lower strength materials, exhibiting small amount
of plastic deformation before failure.
4) R-curve :
The resistance to fracture of a material during slow and
stable crack propagation
K
IC
fracture toughness of material is obtained by determining
the ability of material to withstand the load in the presence of
a sharp crack before failure.
Fracture toughness is required in the system of high strength
and light weight, i.e., high strength steels, titanium and
aluminium alloys.

Fracture toughness How long
the existing crack will grow
until the specimen fails
Flaw geometry and
design of cylindrical
pressure vessel
BCC structure metals experience ductile-to-brittle transition
behaviour when subjected to decreasing temperature,
resulting from a strong yield stress dependent on
temperature.


BCC metals possess limited slip systems available at low
temperature, minimising the plastic deformation during the
fracture process.
Increasing temperature allows more slip systems to operate,
yielding general plastic deformation to occur prior to failure .

Theory of the ductile to brittle
transition :
The criterion for a material to change its fracture behaviour
from ductile to brittle mode is when the yield stress at the
observed temperature is larger than the stress necessary for
the growth of the microcrack indicated in the Griffith theory.
Cottrell studied the role of parameters, which influence the
ductile to-
brittle transition as follows;






i
is the lattice resistance to dislocation movement
k is a parameter related to the release of dislocation into a
pile-up
D is the grain diameter (associated with slip length).
G is the shear modulus
is a constant depending on the stress system.
Subjects of interest

Objectives / Introduction
The high temperature materials problem
Temperature dependent mechanical behaviour
Creep test
Stress rupture test
Structural change during creep
Mechanisms of creep deformation
Fracture at elevated temperature
High temperature alloys

INTRODUCTION
High temperature applications

Subjected to
high stress at
high
temperature

Steam
Power
Plants
Steam Turbine
Used in Power
Plants
Oil Refineries
Atoms move faster diffusion
controlled process.
This affects mechanical properties
of materials.
Greater mobility of dislocations
(climb).
Increased amount of vacancies.
Deformation at grain boundaries.
Metallurgical changes, i.e., phase
transformation,precipitation,
oxidation, recrystallisation.

TEMP
Creep occurs when a metal is subjected to a constant tensile load at an elevated
temperature. In materials science, creep is the tendency of a solid material to
slowly move or deform permanently under the influence of stresses.

At which temperature will material will creep?

Since materials have its own different melting point, each will creep when the
homologous temperature > 0.5.




The creep test measure the dimensional changes which occur when subjected
to high temperature.

The rupture test measures the effect of temperature on the long-time load
bearing characteristics.



The creep test is carried out by applying a constant load to a
tensile specimen maintained at a constant temperature
Schematic creep testing
machine











fatigue is the progressive and localized
structural damage that occurs when a material
is subjected to cyclic loading.

The nominal maximum stress values are less
than the ultimate tensile stress limit, and may
be below the yield stress limit of the material.

The shape of the structure will significantly
affect the fatigue life; square holes or sharp
corners will lead to elevated local stresses
where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes
and smooth transitions or fillets are therefore
important to increase the fatigue strength of
the structure.
Crack initiation
Crack propagation
Final facture
Jack hammer before fatigue
Jack hammer after fatigue
In metals and alloys, the process starts with
dislocation movements, eventually forming
persistent slip bands that nucleate short cracks.
The greater the applied stress range, the shorter
the life.
Damage is cumulative.Materials do not recover
when rested.
Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors,
such as temperature, surface finish,
microstructure, presence of oxidizing or inert
chemicals, residual stresses, contact (fretting),
etc.
Some materials (e.g., some steel and titanium alloys)
exhibit a theoretical fatigue limit below which
continued loading does not lead to structural failure

In recent years, researchers have found that failures
occur below the theoretical fatigue limit at very high
fatigue lives (109 to 1010 cycles). An ultrasonic
resonance technique is used in these experiments
with frequencies around 1020 kHz.

High cycle fatigue strength (about 103 to 108 cycles)
can be described by stress-based parameters. A
load-controlled servo-hydraulic test rig is commonly
used in these tests, with frequencies of around 2050
Hz. Other sorts of machineslike resonant magnetic
machinescan also be used, achieving frequencies
up to 250 Hz.
In high-cycle fatigue situations, materials
performance is commonly characterized by an S-
N curve, also known as a Whler curve . This is a
graph of the magnitude of a cyclic stress (S)
against the logarithmic scale of cycles to failure
(N).
S-N curves are derived from tests on samples of
the material to be characterized (often called
coupons) where a regular sinusoidal stress is
applied by a testing machine which also counts
the number of cycles to failure. This process is
sometimes known as coupon testing.


Cyclic stress state: Depending on the complexity of the
geometry and the loading, one or more properties of the
stress state need to be considered, such as stress amplitude,
mean stress, biaxiality, in-phase or out-of-phase shear stress,
and load sequence,
Geometry: Notches and variation in cross section throughout
a part lead to stress concentrations where fatigue cracks
initiate.
Surface quality. Surface roughness cause microscopic stress
concentrations that lower the fatigue strength. Compressive
residual stresses can be introduced in the surface by e.g. shot
peening to increase fatigue life. Such techniques for producing
surface stress are often referred to as peening, whatever the
mechanism used to produce the stress. Low Plasticity
Burnishing, Laser peening, and ultrasonic impact treatment
can also produce this surface compressive stress and can
increase the fatigue life of the component. This improvement
is normally observed only for high-cycle fatigue.

Material Type: Fatigue life, as well as the behavior during
cyclic loading, varies widely for different materials, e.g.
composites and polymers differ markedly from metals.
Residual stresses: Welding, cutting, casting, and other
manufacturing processes involving heat or deformation can
produce high levels of tensile residual stress, which decreases
the fatigue strength.
Size and distribution of internal defects: Casting
defects such as gas porosity, non-metallic inclusions and
shrinkage voids can significantly reduce fatigue strength.
Direction of loading: For non-isotropic materials, fatigue
strength depends on the direction of the principal stress.
Grain size: For most metals, smaller grains yield longer fatigue
lives, however, the presence of surface defects or scratches will
have a greater influence than in a coarse grained alloy.
Environment: Environmental conditions can cause erosion,
corrosion, or gas-phase embrittlement, which all affect fatigue
life. Corrosion fatigue is a problem encountered in many
aggressive environments.