ANKIT SAXENA (PGMSE136013)

SHIVENDRA PRATAP RAI(PGMSE136014)

First generation (1939-1954) - Vacuum Tube
Second generation (1954-1959) Transistor
Third generation (1959-1971) Integrated Circuits
Fourth generation (1971-present) Microprocessor

First generation (1939-1954) - vacuum tube

IBM 650, 1954


Second generation (1954-1959) - transistor







Third generation (1959-1971) IC

Remarks :- Thanks to the use of IC PDP-8 was the least expensive
general purpose small computer in 1960`s.







PDP-8 DIGITAL EQUIPMENT COOPERATION
Fig. Manchester University Experimental Transistor
Computer
Fourth generation (1971-present) Microprocessor
In 1971 Intel developed 4-bit 4004 chip for calculator application










ALU
Instruction
decoder
Reg.
Program
counter
I/O
Refresh
logic
System bus
Control logic
ROM/RAM buffer Timing Reset
Block diagram of Intel 4004
Evolution of Intel Microprocessors


A microprocessor is a stand alone, self contained single chip
microcomputer.
It must have as a minimum:
A central processing unit (CPU)
Nonvolatile and program memory
Input and Output capabilities.
A structure that has these, can be programmed in some convenient
programming language
Can interact with the outside world through the input/output ports.
Other important requirements:
Must be relatively simple, Reasonably small .
Necessarily limited in most of its features Memory, Processing power and
Speed, addressing range and, of course in number of I/O devices it can
interact with.
The designer must have access to all features of the microprocessor bus,
memory, registers, all I/O ports.
In short, Microprocessors are components with flexible features that the
engineer can configure and program to perform task or a series of tasks.


Microprocessor-based systems are electrical systems consisting of
microprocessors, memories, I/O units, and other peripherals.
Microprocessors are the brains of the systems
Microprocessors access memories and other units through buses.
The operations of microprocessors are controlled by instructions stored in
memories.

Memory
Output
units
Input
units
Bus
Microprocessor
Control
unit
Datapath
ALU
Reg.
The CPU is the section of the processor which processes the data, fetching
instructions from memory, decoding them and executing them.
















Features of CPU

Registers
Program
counter
Memory
Address
ALU
Accumulator
Status Register
Timing and control
Instruction
register
The memory unit stores binary data and takes the form of one or more integrated
circuits. The data may be program instruction codes or numbers being operated on.
The size of the memory is addressed by the number of wires in the address bus.
The memory elements consist large numbers of storage cells capable of storing
either 0 or 1.
The storage cells are grouped in locations with each location capable of storing one
word. Each location is identified by a unique address.
The size of memory unit is specified in terms of the number of storage locations
available;
1K is 2^10 = 1024 locations and thus a 4K memory has 4096 location.
There are a number of forms of memory units
CHIP SELECT CHIP SELECT

a) ROM
b) PROM
DATA LINES
c) EPROM
d) EEPROM ADRESS LINES DATA LINES
e) RAM


READ,CONTROL SIGNAL READ WRITE


The Input/output Operation Is Defined as the transfer of data between the
microprocessor and the external world . The term peripheral devices is used
for pieces of equipment that exchange data with a microprocessor system.


In input operations the input devices places the data in the data register of
the interface chip; this holds the data until it is read by the microprocessor.


In output operations the microprocessor places the data in the register until
it is read by the peripheral.


MPU communicates with Memory and I/O using the System Bus
Address bus
Unidirectional
Memory and I/O Addresses
Data bus
Bidirectional
Transfers Binary Data and Instructions
Control lines
Read and Write timing signals

Motorola 6800 architecture
Receives instructions & data from main memory.

Instructions are then sent to the instruction cache,
data to the data cache.

Also receives the processed data and sends it to
the main memory.

This unit receives the programming instructions
and decodes them into a form that is
understandable by the processing units, i.e. the
ALU or FPU.

Then, it passes on the decoded instruction to the
ALU or FPU.

Also known as the Integer Unit.

It performs whole-number math calculations (subtract,
multiply, divide, etc) comparisons (is greater than, is smaller
than, etc.) and logical operations (NOT, OR, AND, etc).

The new breed of popular microprocessors have not one but
two almost identical ALUs that can do calculations
simultaneously, doubling the capability.

Also known as the Numeric Unit.

It performs calculations that involve numbers
represented in the scientific notation (also known
as floating-point numbers).

This notation can represent extremely small and
extremely large numbers in a compact form.

Floating-point calculations are required for doing
graphics, engineering and scientific work.

The ALU can do these calculations as well, but will
do them very slowly.
Both ALU & FPU have a very small amount of super-fast private
memory placed right next to them for their exclusive use. These are
called registers.


The ALU & FPU store intermediate and final results from their
calculations in these registers.


Processed data goes back to the data cache and then to main
memory from these registers.

8-bit designs
16-bit designs
32-bit designs
64-bit designs in personal computers
Multicore designs
Special-purpose designs
Microcontrollers, digital signal processers(DSP) and
graphics processing unit(GPU).

Intel

4004, 4040
8080, 8085
8048, 8051
i860, i960
Itanium

Motorola
Motorola 6800
Motorola 6809
Motorola 68000 family
MotoG4, G5
Introduced in December 2001

55 million transistors

32-bit word size

2 ALUs, each working at 4.4GHz

128-bit FPU

0.13 micron process

Targeted use: PCs and low-end workstations

Cost: around $600

The computing capability of a microprocessor can be
enhanced in many different ways:

By increasing the clock frequency.

By increasing the word-width.

By having a more effective caching algorithm and the
right cache size.

By adding more functional units (e.g. ALUs, FPUs, etc.).

Improving the architecture.