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= =
The reactions (forces and moments) Rh and
Rc in the hot and cold conditions,
respectively, shall be obtained as follows
from the reactions R derived from the
flexibility calculations based on the modulus
of elasticity at room temperature Ec.
or
Whichever is greater, and with the further
condition that:
c
c
h
h
R
E
E
C R
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
3
2
1
CR R
c
=
R
E
E
S
S
R
h
c
c
h
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
= 1
Where:
C = cold spring factor varying from zero for
no cold spring to one for 100 percent cold
spring
S
e
= maximum computed expansion stress
E
c
= modulus of elasticity in the cold
condition
E
h
= modulus of elasticity in hot condition
R = range of reactions corresponding to the
full expansion range based on E
C
.
R
c
and R
h
represent the maximum reactions
estimated to occur in the cold and hot
conditions, respectively.
c. The design and spacing of support shall
be checked to assure that the sum of the
longitudinal stress due to the weight,
pressure, and other sustained external
loading does not exceed S
h
.
6.1 This is industrial air and gas in mines,
power plants, industrial and gas
manufacturing plants.
a. Piping with metal temperature above
232 C (450 F) or below -2.9 C (27 F).
b. Air piping systems operating at pressures
of 207 kPa (30 psig) or less.
c. Piping lines with firebrick or other
refractory material used for conveying hot
gases.
6.2 Wall thickness of Pipe
The minimum thickness of pipe wall required
shall be determined by the following formula
for the designated pressure and for
temperature not exceeding 232 C (450 F).
C
P S
PD
t
m
+
+
=
8 . 0 2
Where:
P = maximum allowable, operating pressure in
kPa. The value obtained maybe rounded to the
next higher unit of 10. The maximum allowable
operating pressure computed with S values
permitted under this paragraph, shall not exceed
two-thirds of the mill test pressure for a service
temperature of 38 C (100 F) or less and five-
ninths of the mill test pressure for a service
temperature of 232 C (450 F).
S = maximum allowable hoop stress in kPa, see
Table 11.7.2.
For steel or wrought-iron pipe (except butt
welded-manufactured under a specification not
listed in Table 11.7.2) the value of S shall be
0.6K for a service temperature of 38 C (100 F) or
less or 0.52K for a service temperature of 232 C
(450 F) where K is the stipulated minimum
effective yield strength calculated in the manner
described in Section 11.7.3.
t
m
= minimum pipe wall thickness in mm, i.e.,
nominal wall thickness less the manufacturing
tolerance for the thickness. Where available
from on hand or in stock, the actual measured
wall thickness maybe used to calculate the
maximum allowable operating pressure.
C = corrosion in millimetre obtained from the
following:
D = outside diameter of pipe in inches (mm).
6.3 Effective Yield Strength (K)
The effective yield strength K of steel or
wrought-iron pipe maybe determined by
taking the product of Y, the stipulated
minimum yield strength, and E, efficiency of
the longitudinal joint. The value of E shall
be taken from the following:
Alternatively, the effective yield strength
maybe determined by internal hydrostatic
pressure tests on finished lengths of pipe or
on cylindrical samples cut from the results of
such tests in accordance with the following
formula:
Where:
K = effective yield strength in kPa.
P
y
= pressure at the yield strength of the pipe
in kPa.
t
D P
K
y
2
=
This maybe taken as the pressure required to
cause a volumetric offset of 0.2 per cent of
as the pressure required to cause a
permanent increase in circumference of 0.1
per cent at any point, but other suitable
methods of determining that the stress in the
steel has reached the yield strength may be
used, provided such methods conform in all
respects to recognized engineering practices.
t = stipulated nominal pipe wall thickness in
mm. D = stipulated outside diameter of pipe
in mm.
7.1 Refrigeration piping shall be understood
to comprise all refrigerant and brine piping,
whenever used and whether erected on the
premise or factory assembled.
7.2 Minimum Design Pressures for
Refrigerant Piping
a. Piping Systems for refrigerants shall be
designed for not less than the pressures given
in Table 11.8.2.1.
b. For refrigerants not listed in Table 11.8.2.1
the design pressure for the high-pressure side
shall be not less than the saturated vapour
pressure of the refrigerant at 54 C (130 F). The
design pressure for the low-pressure side shall
be not less than the saturated vapour pressure of
the refrigerant at 32 C (90 F). For refrigerant not
listed in Table 11.8.2.1 and having a critical
temperature below 54 C (130 F), the design
pressure for the high pressure side shall be not
less than 1.5 times the critical pressure and the
design pressure for the low-pressure side shall
be not less than the critical pressure. In no case
shall be design pressure be less than 270 kPa (39
psig).
c. Piping systems for brine shall be
designed for the maximum pressure which
can be imposed on the system in normal
operation, but not less than 689.5 kPa (100
psig) including for cast-iron pipe, the water
hammer allowance as shown in Table
11.8.2.3.
d. For working temperatures below 18 C (65
F), an allowance for brittleness of castings,
forgings, bolting, and pipe shall be made as
follows:
Cast Iron, Wrought-Iron, and Carbon Steel
ferrous materials shall have the design
pressure including allowance for water
hammer increased 2 percent for each degree
below 18 C (65 F) and shall not be used
below -73 C (-100 F).
Copper, brass, bronze. No adjustment.
7.3 Thickness of Pipe
The minimum thickness of pipe wall required
shall be determined by the following
formula:
Where:
t
m
= minimum pipe wall thickness in mm
C
P S
PD
t
m
+
+
=
8 . 0 2
P = maximum internal service pressure in kPa
(plus allowance for temperatures as provide in
Sec. 11.8.2.4 (7.2.d) and water hammer
allowance for cast-iron pipe as provided in Sec.
11.8.2.3 (7.2.c)). The value of P shall not be
taken at less than 689.5 kPa (100 psig) for any
condition of service or material.
D = outside diameter of pipe in mm
S = allowable stress in material due to internal
pressure, kPa, Table 11.8.3.
C = allowance for threading, mechanical
strength, and/or corrosion, in mm obtained from
the following list.
7.4 Piping of Pressure Relieving Devices
The most important design factor about
pressure relieving devices is the underlying
principle of intrinsic safety. They must fail
safe or not at all. Therefore, the solution to
problems in pressure relied piping must be
based on sound design practices. Because
failure is intolerable, simplicity and
directness of design should be encouraged as
a mass to reliability.
There are at least four good reasons why the
installation of pressure safety valves and disc
should be engineered with care:
a. The inlet and outlet piping can reduce the
capacity of the device below a safe value.
b. The operation of the device maybe
adversely affected to the point where the
opening or closing pressure is altered. In the
case of safety valves, premature leaking or
simmering may occur at pressures less than
the set pressure or chattering may occur after
the valve opens.
c. The reaction thrust at the same time the
device starts to discharge can cause mechanical
failure of the piping.
d. Good design saves maintenance pesos.
7.5 Safety Valve Inlet Piping
In order to operate satisfactorily, a safety
valve must be mounted vertically. It should
be directly on the vessel nozzle or on a short
connection fitting that provides direct and
unobstructed flow between the vessel and
the valve. Safety valves protecting piping
systems should of course be mounted in a
similar manner. The device may never be
installed on a fitting having a smaller inside
diameter than the safety valve inlet
connection.
7.6 Pressure Drop
The pressure drop between the vessel and
safety valve inlet flange should not be so
large that the valve is starved or
chattering will result. The following
limitations are suggested:
a. The pressure drop due to friction should
not exceed 1 percent of the accumulated
relieving pressure.
b. The pressure drop due to velocity head
loss should not exceed 2 percent of the
accumulated relieving pressure.
Some safety valve manufacturer suggested a
maximum total pressure drop of 2 percent of
set pressure. In the absence of test data, it is
recommended that this more conservative
limit be used.
These recommendations are based on a
blowdown of a 4 percent. Within this limits, if
the blowdown setting is increased, the pressure
drop maybe increased proportionately.
Remember however, that pressure lost in the
inlet piping must be taken into consideration
when sizing the safety valve. Pressure loss in the
discharge piping should be minimized by running
the line as directly as possible. Use long-radius
bends and avoid close-up fittings. In no case may
the cross-sectioned area of the discharge pipe be
less than that of the valve outlet.
7.7 Piping Supports
Safety valves, although they may not be
included under heading of delicate
instruments, nonetheless instruments. They
are required to measure within three percent
and to perform a specific control function.
Excessive strain on the valve body adversely
affects its ability to measure and control.
Supports for discharge piping should be designed
to keep the load on the valve to a minimum. In
high temperature service, high loads will cause
permanent distortion of the valve because of
creep in the metal. Even at low temperature,
valve distortion will cause the valve to leak at
pressures lower than the set pressure and result
in faulty operation. The discharge piping should
be supported free of the valve and carefully
aligned so that the forces acting on the valve
will be at minimum when the equipment is under
normal operating conditions. Expansion joints or
long radius bends of proper design and cold
spring should be provided to prevent excessive
strain.
The major stresses to which the discharge
pipe is subjected are usually due to thermal
expansion and discharge reaction forces. The
sudden release of compressible fluid into a
multi-directional discharge pipe produces an
impact load and bourdon effect at each
charge of direction. The piping must be
adequately anchored to prevent sway or
vibration while the valve is discharging.
NOTES:
A. The maximum weight per span is based on
bigger steel pipe size weight full of water
fittings and insulated.
1. The copper tubing and fittings (for
instrument air lines) shall be supported not
more than 5 feet on centers or as shown on the
drawings.
2. Vertical risers shall be supported from the
building construction by means of approved pipe
clamps of U-bolts at every floor. Provide slide
guides for pipes subject to thermal expansion.
Supports shall be of adequate size structural
steel shapes or sections where pipe clamps are
too short to connect to the building.
2. Piping restraints shall be provided to
prevent unnecessary pipe movements due to
vibration and seismic forces and damage to
pipe joints such as cast iron pipe soldered
copper pipes and others as required.
7.8 Reaction Forces
The total stress imposed on a safety valve or its
piping is caused by the sum of these forces:
a. Internal pressure
b. Dead weight of piping
c. Thermal expansion or contraction of either
the discharge line of the equipment upon which
the valve is mounted and
d. The bending moment cause by the reaction
thrust of the discharge.
All of these stresses except the latter are
common to practically every problem in piping
stress analysis.
The magnitude of the reaction force resulting from
the instantaneous release of a compressible fluid
maybe calculated from the two simple formulas given
below.
For safety valve:
For safety disc:
Where:
F
1
= Reaction force, kg
A = Area of valve orifice or disc., sq. Mm.
P
1
= inlet pressure at time of opening, kPa (set
pressure plus 14.7)
K = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv
Note: Psi x 6.895 = kPa
( )
1 1
2 . 0 AP K F + =
( )
1 1
2 . 0 63 . 0 AP K F + =
If it is possible for air to be relieved from the
system under special conditions, use a
minimum value of K = 1.4 for design.
Calculation of the reaction force for liquid
service demonstrates that this force is
negligible. However, since it is usually
possible to trap air or gas in any pressure
system, it is recommended that K = 104 be
used in the above formulas as a basis design
for liquid service.
7.9 Compressor Piping
Piping in a compressor circuit should connect
directly point to point; bends instead of
elbows give less friction loss and less
vibration; angular branch connections
eliminate hard tees and give a smoother
flow; double offsets for directional change
should be avoided;
closely integrated intercoolers with the
machine minimizes piping; pulsation
dampeners should be located on the
cylinders without any interconnecting pipe;
knockout drums should be adjacent to the
machine; several aftercoolers or exchangers
in the circuit should be stacked as much as
possible for a direct gas flow; and equipment
in the circuit should be in process flow
sequence.
Because of the ever present vibration
problems of reciprocating compressors, pipe
supports have a very important role in piping
design. Supports independent of any other
foundation or structure is almost mandatory.
Pipe systems nailed down close to grade is
a much preferred arrangement. If badly
designed compressor piping has to be
corrected after start-up of the plant, it can
become very expensive.
INTRODUCTION
Valves are mechanical devices designed to
direct, start, stop, mix or regulate the flow,
pressure or temperature of a process fluid. The
common types of valves available are gate
valves, globe valves, butterfly valves etc. the
materials commonly used for construction are
iron, steel, plastic, brass or a mixture of special
alloys.
According to their function valves may be
classified as on-off valves, non-return valves,
and control valves. The on-off valves are used to
start or stop the flow through the process. Gate
valves and pressure relief valves are examples of
on-off type of valves to mention a few. The non-
return valves allow the fluid to flow in one
particular direction only. The control valves are
used to regulate flow, temperature or pressure
through a system.
ON-OFF VALVES:
GATE VALVES
Gate valves are linear motion valves having a
closure element perpendicular to the process
flow that slides into the main stream to provide
shut off. These are used in low-pressure systems.
The problem with these valves is that they
cannot handle throttling operations, are easily
fouled and cannot be used in systems having
high-pressure drops. It is difficult to obtain tight
shut off with these valves and they take longer
to open or close than any other manual valves.
The different types of gate valves are parallel
gate valves knife edged gate valves and through
conduit gate valves.
BUTTERFLY VALVES
These valves are mainly used as an onoff valve.
It is mainly a rotary motion valve that uses a
rotating round disk as a regulating element.
There are two types of butterfly valves
concentric and eccentric butterfly valves. These
valves can be directly installed in between two
flanges without any special end connections
owing to their very narrow face-to-face
dimensions.
It has a large flow coefficient and due to rotary
motion of shaft the friction forces generated are
far less than a linear motion valve. They have a
high pressure recovery factor. These valves are
used in low pressure applications. Cavitation and
choked flow can occur easily with these valves
when installed in an application with high
pressure drop.
PLUG COCKS AND BALL VALVES
For temperature below 250 C, metallic plug
cocks are useful in chemical process lines. As in
laboratory stopcock, a quarter turn of the stem
takes the valve from fully open to fully closed,
and when fully open, the channel through the
plug may be as large as the inside of the pipe
itself, and the pressure drop is minimal. In a ball
valve the sealing element is spherical, and the
problems of alignment and freezing of the
element are less than with a plug cock.
In both plug cocks and ball valves the area of
contact between moving element and the seat is
large, and both can therefore be used in
throttling service. Ball valves find occasional
application in flow control.
NON RETURN (CHECK) VALVES
Non-return valves allow the fluid to flow only in
the desired direction. The design is such that any
flow or pressure in the opposite direction is
mechanically restricted from occurring. All check
valves are non return valves.
Non return valves are used to prevent back flow
of fluids, which could damage equipment or
upset the process. Such valves are especially
useful in protecting a pump in a liquid
application or compressed gas applications from
back flow when pump or compressor is shut
down . Non return valves are also used in process
systems that have varying pressure which must
be kept separate.
There are two types of check(non-return) valves,
swing types and spring types.
In the swing type, the pressure of the water
forces the valve gate to 'swing' open, but once
the flow stops, gravity causes the gate to fall
closed , preventing a reversal of the flow. This
type of valve must be mounted vertically or
horizontally to work properly.
In contrast, the gate in a spring check valve is
spring loaded. Water pressure forces the gate
open just as in the swing type, but when the
flow stops, the spring, not gravity, forces the
gate closed. This enables the valve to be
mounted in any position and at any angle..
GLOBE VALVES
A globe valve is a linear motion valve
characterized by a globe style body with a long
face to face dimension that accommodates
smooth, rounded flow passages sufficiently long
enough to ensure smooth flow through the valve
without any sharp turns. These valves can be
used in both gas as well as liquid applications
and can handle severe conditions of temperature
and pressure.
The majority of the globe valves have a top
entry design thus permitting a easier servicing of
the internal parts and allowing the valves to
remain in line when maintenance is taking place.
But these valves have certain disadvantages also.
They have a high cost and a large size factor and
cannot be used for unclean liquids. They are
mainly used for flow control and in cases
involving vacuum or high temperature extremes.
SOLENOID VALVE:
Solenoid valves are best suited for small, short-
stroke on-off operations requiring very high
speed of response. These valves can open or
close in 8 to 12 milliseconds. However, they are
limited to pressure drops below 20.7 bars
although when pivoted with pilot levers or
double seats, they can handle higher pressure
drops. A solenoid valve contains a valve body, a
magnetic core attached to the stem and disc,
and a solenoid coil. A small spring assists the
release and initial closing of the valve. The valve
is electrically energized to open.
When an electrical signal is input to a solenoid
valve (magnetic changeover valve), the drawing
force of the solenoid moves the spool, changing
the direction of flow. Because the electrical
signal is switched at the valve, remote control
and automatic control are simple. Stronger
springs are used to overcome the friction of the
packing when it is required. Reversing the valve
plug causes reverse action (open when de-
energized). These valves are quite expensive.
Bellow Seal Valve
Bellow seal valves are a special type of globe
valves which are used for fine control of flow.
The main difference between the ordinary globe
valves and the bellow seal valve is that in the
globe valve there is gland packing along the stem
but in the bellow seal valve, a bellow is used to
prevent leakage instead of the packing. Bellow
seal valves are totally leak-proof. They are used
to handle corrosive liquids. This type of valve
has been used in the butadiene extraction unit.
MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION OF VALVES
The selection of the valve body material is
usually based on pressure, temperature,
corrosive properties and erosive properties of
the flow media. Also the choice of the materials
depends on economic factors. Majority of control
valves involve non corrosive fluids at reasonable
temperatures and pressure. Therefore cast iron
and cast carbon steel are most commonly used
valve body materials.
The purpose of the pipe schedule standards
is for all industries that use pipes to use the
same standards. Pipe schedules are a means
of categorizing pipe and identifying the
strengths and characteristics of its
capabilities. For all pipe sizes and outside
diameter (O.D.) remains relatively constant.
The variations in wall thickness affects only
the inside diameter (I.D.).
Pipe schedule is an American definition to
define pipe thickness and how much pressure
can the pipe stand. The most commonly used
schedules today are 40, 80, and 160. There is
a commonly held belief that the schedule
number is an indicator of the service
pressure that the pipe can take.
The Iron pipe size (IPS) is an older system
still used by some manufacturers and legacy
drawings and equipment. The IPS number is
the same as the NPS, but the schedules were
limited to Standard Wall (STD), Extra Strong
(XS), and Double Extra Strong (XXS). STD is
identical to SCH 40 for NPS 1/8 to NPS 10,
inclusive, and indicates 0.375 wall thickness
for NPS 12 and larger. SX is identical to SCH
80 for NPS 1/8 to NPS 8, inclusive, and
indicates 0.500 wall thickness for NPS 8 and
larger. Different definitions exist for XXS, but
it is generally thicker than schedule 160.
Industrial pipe thickness follow a set
formula, expressed as the schedule
number as established by the American
Standard Association (ASA) now re-organized
as ANI the American National Standard
Institute. Eleven schedule number are
available for use: 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80,
100, 120, 140, & 160.
A schedule number indicate the
approximate value of
Sch. No. = 1000P/S
Where
P = service pressure (psi)
S = allowable stress (psi)
The higher the schedule number is, the
thicker the pipe is. Since the outside
diameter of each pipe size is standardized, a
particular nominal pipe size will have
different inside pipe diameter depending on
the schedule specified.
Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe
To distinguish different weights of pipe. It is
common to use the Schedule terminology
from ANSI/ASME B36.10 Welded and Seamless
Wrought Steel Pipe:
Light Wall
Schedule 10 (Sch/10, S/10)
Schedule 20 (Sch/20, S/20)
Schedule 30 (Sch/30, S/30)
Schedule 40 (Sch/40, S/40)
Standard Weight (ST, Std, STD)
Schedule 60 (Sch/60, S/60)
Extra Strong (Extra Heavy, EH, XH, XS)
Schedule 80 (Sch/80, S/80)
Schedule 100 (Sch/100, S/100)
Schedule 120 (Sch/120, S/120)
Schedule 140 (Sch/140, S/140)
Schedule 160 (Sch/160, S/160)
Double Extra Strong (Double extra heavy,
XXH, XXS)
Note that many of the schedules are
identical in certain sizes.
Stainless Steel Pipe
For stainless steel pipe thru 12-inch,
schedule numbers from Schedule 5S to
schedule 80S are used as published in
ANSI/ASME 36.19M Stainless Steel Pipe.
Schedule 5S (Sch/5S, S/5S)
Schedule 10S (Sch/10S, S/10S)
Schedule 40S (Sch/40S, S/40S)
Schedule 80S (Sch/80S, S/80S)
Copper pipe and tube comes in a variety of
types, with different wall thicknesses,
ductility and intended used. The difference
between copper pipe and copper tube is the
the way the diameter of the pipe is
measured. Copper tube is measured by
outside diameter (OD) whereas copper pipe
is measured by inside diameter (ID).
Depending on the plumbing job you are
doing, local and national plumbing codes will
dictate which type of copper pipe is
acceptable.
Type L copper pipe
Type L copper pipe and tube has a thicker
wall than type M and DWV pipes making it
the preferred choice for longevity. There are
two kinds of type L; Hard, and soft temper.
Type L will be marked with blue along the
pipe or tubing.
Hard temper type L plumbing applications
include:
Above ground water distribution
Above and below ground drainage and venting
systems
Building sewer
Soft temper type L plumbing applications
include:
Water service pipe
Water distribution above and below ground
Type M copper pipe
Type M copper pipe and tubing is commonly
used in residential plumbing because it has
thin walls and can be produced and sold at a
much lower cost. For water distribution
longevity type M is not recommended. Type
M copper is also better for heating
applications because of the thin wall
thickness. Type M is identified with RED
markings along the pipe.
Hard temper type M plumbing applications
include:
Above ground water distribution
Above ground drainage systems
Soft temper type M shall not be used in
plumbing systems.
Type K copper pipe
Type K copper pipe and tube is the most
robust of the four types because it has the
largest wall thickness. Type K comes in hard
and soft temper and will be identified by
green markings. Type K copper can be used
for many other applications such as: Fuel,
gasses, HVAC, fire protection systems and
vacuum systems to name a few.
Hard temper type K plumbing applications
include:
Above ground water distribution
Above and below ground drainage and venting
systems
Building sewer
Soft temper type K plumbing applications
include:
Water service pipe
Water distribution above and below ground
DWV copper pipe
DWV copper pipe is used for drainage waste
and vent (DWV), above ground only and is
identified by yellow markings.
1. Determine the specifications of material
and wall thickness for a 12 in pipe to carry
steam at a state selected from the following:
(a) 425 psig, 600 F; (b) 400 psig, saturated;
(c) 1275 psig, 950 F
(d) 850 psig, 850 F.
2. Would Schedule 120, 8 in pipe made to
A53-SA Specification be acceptable on a line
operating at 250 psig, 750 F?
3. Specify the pipe required to carry
600,000 lb steam per hr at 1255 psig, 1000 F,
with velocity approximating 10,000 fpm.
4. What maximum working pressure is
advisable in an 18 in OD, Schedule 40 pipe
A53-SA, operations not to exceed 450 F?