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Introduction

Respiration may be defined in two ways:


Cellular respiration
(1) it is the process by which cells oxidize
nutrient molecules to obtain energy in the
form of ATP
Gas exchange
(1) it is the exchange of gases specifically
carbon dioxide and oxygen between an
organism and its external environment

Introduction

(1) External Respiration
is involved in the exchange
of gasses between the
external environment and
the respiratory organs
Gas exchange in humans is of two stages:
Introduction
Gas exchange in humans is of two stages:

(2) Internal Respiration
involves the exchange of gasses between
body fluids and the tissue cells.
Aims of Gas Exchange
A. To collect oxygen from the environment
so as to provide the final electron
acceptor in the electron transport chain
during cellular respiration. This
produces the desired product: energy in
the form of ATP
B. To expel carbon dioxide- a by-product
of cellular respiration- from the body
tissues to the environment
Breathing
Humans exchange gasses with the
environment through breathing.
The rate at which breathing occurs as well as
its rhythm is mainly controlled by brain
centres located at the medulla oblongata and
the Pons
The control centre of the medulla monitors
pH of the blood and the cerebrospinal fluid
and reacts to its slightest changes
Blood pH
Normal: 7.35-7.45
Lowering of blood pH indicates an
increase in carbon dioxide concentration
Increase in the normal pH value
indicates a decrease in carbon dioxide
concentration which entails lack of
oxygen in the blood


Methodology
100mL lime water was
poured into a 125mL
Erlenmeyer flask
A drinking straw was
inserted to the flask
While breathing
normally, air was blown
into the solution in the
flask
Results
As air was blown into the flask the
solution of calcium hydroxide became
cloudy
Calcium hydroxide solution
before blowing air into the
flask
Calcium hydroxide solution after
blowing air into the flask
Discussion
Lime water which was used in the
experiment is made up of concentrated
calcium hydroxide in its diluent- water.
The solution is clear and basic
As the subject started to blow into the
solution, it was observed that the
limewater turned cloudy to white.
The change in color of the solution was
due to the increased concentration of
CALCIUM CARBONATE
Discussion
Calcium Carbonate is a
white solid that
precipitated from the
reaction of calcium
hydroxide with carbon
dioxide in the air blown
in the flask

Ca(OH)
2
+CO
2
CaCO
3
+ H
2
O
Discussion
As the concentration of carbon dioxide was
increased in the limewater, the solution
turned more cloudy due to the increase in
the production of the product calcium
carbonate.
By this procedure we can measure the
amount of CO2 expelled by a subject
qualitatively
Faster change in color = more CO2
expelled

Methodology
The number of breaths per
minute of the subject were
taken after doing the
following:
a. Normal unforced
breathing while sitting down
b. Unforced breathing while
sitting down after vigorous
exercise
c. Unforced breathing while
sitting down after holding
breath
d. While hyperventilating
Results
Activity Breathing Rate
(seconds)
Minimum time for
lime to change color
Sitting quietly 20.7 2 min 16 sec
Hyperventilating 33.2 1 min 52 sec
After exercise 34.4 1 min 36 sec
Holding breath 39.0 2 min 26 sec
Results
As the activity becomes more strenuous
breathing rate increases
As the activity becomes more strenuous
the rate of change of color of the lime
water also increases.
Discussion
More strenuous
activity requires
more energy for
an organism

Discussion
Energy is present in the body in the form
of ATP
ATP is produced via cellular respiration
Respiration needs oxygen as the final
electron acceptor in the Electron
Transport Chain
Respiration produces carbon dioxide as
its by-product

Discussion
ATP need = Oxygen need
ATP production = Carbon Dioxide
production
Increase in CO2 makes blood acidic
Medulla increases breathing rate once it
discovers change in blood pH

Methodology
A simple spirometer was
set up
A large jug was calibrated
by pouring 100mL lots of
water and marking every
level
After filling up the jar with
water the pan was inverted
over a bowl already with
water
A rubber tubing was
inserted into the jug
The remaining air in the
jug was sucked off using
the rubber tubing
Methodology

A. Taking the maximum
amount of air the lungs
could hold while
keeping his nose
closed, the subject
blew all the air he can
blown into the jug
though the rubber tube
Methodology
B. The subject took in
normal amount of air
and blew into the jug
through the tube the
normal amount he
does during relaxed
exhalation
Results
Activity Volume of air Volume of oxygen
A. Forced breathing 1500 mL 315mL
B. Normal breathing 400 mL 84 mL
Discussion
During forced breathing where the subject
inhaled and exhaled maximally the subject
produced 1500mL of air
This value is the lungs Vital Capacity
This is the sum of the volume of air inspired
forcefully after normal inspiration, normal
inspiration and volume of air expired forcefully
after normal expiration.
This volume is approximately 4600 mL in
males and 3400 mL in females normally
Discussion
The amount of air released by the subject
on the second part of the exercise was
400mL . This was the lungs Tidal Volume
Tidal volume is usually 500mL in humans
Discussion
It was termed tidal
volume for mammals
breathe by a
mechanism called
tidal breathing in
which the air inhaled
goes to the lungs the
same way as it comes
out.

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