Fiber Optic Communications Subject:Opto Electronics Engr - Abid Hussain Chohan

Joseph C. Palais 1.
1 1
Chapter 1
Fiber Optic
Communications
Subject:Opto Electronics
Engr.Abid Hussain
Chohan
Joseph C. Palais 1.1 2
Section 1.1
Introduction
HISTORY
Early communications used light signals.
Hand signals used light (from the sun or the moon)
as an information carrier.
The modulator was the hand of the sender.
The detector was the eye of the receiver.
The processor was the brain of the receiver.
History
Early Optical Communications
Smoke signals
Blinker lights
Photophone: invented by Alexander Graham Bell
Properties of early optical communications systems:
1) slow data rate
2) poor integrity, high error rate
Modern Optical Communications
1960: The first laser was constructed.
1960-1970 Time Period:
Many laser applications were proposed.
One proposal was for an optical
communications link that operated line-of-sight
though the atmosphere.
Modern Optical Communications
Problems
A clear atmosphere was required for efficient
transmission.
The unguided atmospheric system needed an
unobstructed line-of-site.
Solution
In 1970, a low-loss, glass fiber waveguide was
developed at Corning.

Section 1.2
Basic Communications System
Transmitter
Information
Channel
Receiver
Messages are sent from the transmitter through
the information channel to the receiver.
INFORMATION CHANNELS
Unguided Channels (Atmosphere)
Radio Broadcast
Television Broadcast
Wireless
Satellite
Guided Channels
Conducting Wires
Waveguides
Fibers
INFORMATION CHANNELS
Applications For Guided Channels
Applications include:
cable television
telephone
data links [i.e., local area networks (LANs)]
The triple play:
Voice
Video
Data
GENERAL OPTICAL SYSTEM
Message
Origin
Carrier
Source
Coupler
Modulator
Coupler
Detector
Processor
Destination
Optic
Domain
Electric Domain
Transmitter Receiver
Channel
COMPONENTS OF A GENERAL
OPTICAL SYSTEM
1.2.1 Message Origin: Puts the message into
electrical form. Examples include the microphone
and the video camera.
1.2.2 Modulator: Converts the electrical message
into proper format. Impresses the signal onto the
optical carrier. Modulation formats are analog and
digital.
OPTICAL SYSTEM
Analog (continuous)
Time
Digital (discrete)
1 0 1 0 1
Time
OPTIC SYSTEM
1.2.3 Carrier Source: Generates the lightwave
on which the information is carried.
Common devices are:
laser diode (LD)
light emitting diode (LED)
The carrier source is intensity modulated. As the
input current changes, the output optical power
changes in the same way.
OPTIC SYSTEM
The output power of the light source is proportional
to the input current.
Electrical Domain
Optical Domain
Carrier Source
ELECTRICAL
CURRENT, I
in

OPTICAL
POWER, P
OUT

GENERAL FIBER OPTIC SYSTEM
Intensity modulation: The transfer characteristics of
the ideal light source is
Optic
Power
(P)
Input current (I)
Example:
0
0 t t
I P
The above graphs indicate that the optic
power is directly proportional to the input
current.
Input
Current
Output
Optical Power
1.2.4 Coupler: Couples light from the source to the
fiber channel. The efficiency may not be high.
Why?
Answer:
1) Fibers are small (50 m diameters or less for
some fibers).
2) The fiber acceptance angle is small.
Light
Source
Fiber
Acceptance
angle
Light ray
1.2.5 Information channel: Glass (or plastic)
fibers that are the transmission medium.
Desirable properties:
1) Low attenuation (losses limit path lengths)
2) Low pulse (waveform) distortion
Pulses spread out as they propagate down the
fiber as indicated on the next slide.
Pulse Distortion (Pulse Spread)
Input
Power
Waveform after a short travel distance
Waveform after further travel
t
t
t
Power
Power
Solution to pulse spreading:
The pulses need to be spread out more at the
transmitter, so they do not overlap with each other
at the receiver. This means sending fewer pulses
per second. That is, transmitting at a lower data
rate.
Conclusion: Distortion limits the allowed data rate.
Receiver Coupler: Transfers the optic power
from the fiber to the photodetector.
Fiber
Photodetector
Electric
Current
Optic Power
1.2.6 Photodetector: Converts optical power
to electric current. Ideally, the current is a
replica of the current used to modulate the
light source.
Optical Power
(P
in
)
Electric
Current
(I
out
)
Photodetector
Transfer Characteristic for Photodetector
Optic Power (P)
Output
current
(i)
Output current is
proportional to the
input optical
power.
Processing: Electrical domain processing consists
of the following.
1.2.7 Signal Processing
1) Amplification
2) Filtering to improve signal quality
3) Decision making circuitry for digital signals
Signal Quality Measures
Signal to noise ratio - measure for analog signals
Bit error rate - measure for digital
1.2.8 Message Destination
Devices such as output speakers, telephone
sets, video monitors, and computers.
1.2.9 Some Numbers
Important number in fiber optics
Common Units
Table
Units Symbol Measure
meter m length
Kilogram kg mass
Second s time
Coulomb C charge
Joule J energy
Watt W power
Hertz Hz frequency
Newton N Force
Ampere A Current
Kelvin K Temperature
Celsius
C
Temperature
Farad F Capacitance
Ohm
O
Resistance
Volt V Voltage
Radian r Angle
IMPORTANT CONSTANTS
Description Value Symbol
Velocity of light 3*10
8
m/s c
Planck constant 6.626*10
-34
J*s h
Electron charge -1.6*10
-19
C -e
Boltzmann constant 1.38*10
-23
J/K k

PREFIXES
Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor
tera T 10
12

giga G 10
9

mega M 10
6

kilo k 10
3

centi c 10
-2

milli m 10
-3

micro 10
-6

nano n 10
-9

pico p 10
-12

femto f 10
-15

COMMON UNITS IN FIBER OPTICS
Common units for calculation involving
lengths are:
nanometer m n 1 m
9
10
micron or micrometer m 1 m
6
10
=
Optical wavelengths are usually in the above units.

Bandwidths Of Common Systems
Common Analog Systems
Type Bandwidth Comments
Voice 4 kHz Telephone
Music 10 kHz AM radio broadcast
Music
TV
200 kHz
6 MHz
FM radio broadcast
Television broadcast

Bandwidths Of Common Systems
Common Digital Systems
Type BW Comments
Voice 64 kbps Telephone
Ethernet 10 Mbps Xerox LAN
FDDI 100 Mbps Fiber distributed data
interface

DIGITIZING VOICE MESSAGES
Digitizing Steps
1) Pick the highest frequency:
f
u
= 4 kHz for voice
2) Sample at twice the highest frequency
yielding:
Sampling Rate = 2f
u
= 8000 samples/second
3) Use an 8-bit code for each sample. That is, a
sequence of 8 bits.
One 8-bit number consists of 8 time slots, each
containing a binary 0 or 1. There are 256 possible
combinations, since 2
8
= 256. Thus, a sequence
of 8 bits (combinations of zeroes and ones) will
represent the amplitude of each sample.

Calculate the data rate:
8000(samples/s) x 8 (bits/sample) = 64,000 b/s
Therefore, there are 64,000 b/s transmitted for a
digitized voice message.
MULTIPLEXING
We can multiplex numerous messages by
transmitting at high transmission rates and
interleaving the bits from separate messages.
This is referred to as time division multiplexing
(TDM). The messages share the transmission
line. The receiver separates the individual
messages.
The field commander was here
MULTIPLEXING
Examples of time division multiplexing.
Example 1: The T1 transmission level
operates at a standard rate = 1.544 Mb/s. Since
6
1.544 10
24.06
64,000
=
Thus, 24 voice channels can be simultaneously
transmitted along a T1 transmission line.
DIGITIZING VOICE SIGNALS
Examples of time division multiplexing.
Example 2: The T3 transmission level
operates at a standard rate = 44.7 Mb/s.
A T3 transmission normally carries up to 672
voice channels.
44.7x10
6
/64,000 = 698
ANALOG SIGNAL QUALITY
A measure of the quality of an analog signal is
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). It is the signal
power divided by the noise power.
S/N = (Signal Power)/(Noise Power)
For analog television signals, SNR > 10,000 is
required for decent viewing.
DIGITAL SIGNAL QUALITY
The measure of quality for a digital system is the
bit error rate (BER). The BER is the fraction of
errors contained in a signal.
Example: A BER = 10
-9
means that there is one
error for every 10
9
bits.
Digital systems require good bit error rates.
1.2.10 Computing Power Levels in Decibels
The decibel scale is useful for analysis and design
of fiber components and systems.
P
1
P
2
Component
(System)
2
10
1
10log
P
dB
P
=
THE DECIBEL SCALE
2
10
1
10log
P
dB
P
=
This equation represents the decibel gain or loss
of the component (system). If there is loss the
decibel level will be negative, but if there is gain
then the decibel level will be positive.
DECIBEL SCALE
The decibel scale is used to compare the ratio of
two power levels.
Example: Suppose P
2
/P
1
= 0.5. Then
dB = 10 log (0.5) = -3 dB
Example: If P
2
/P
1
= 1, then
dB = 10 log 1 = 0 dB
Example: If P
2
/P
1
> 1, then dB is positive
Example: If P
2
/P
1
< 1, then dB is negative
DECIBEL SCALE FOR CASCADED
ELEMENTS
The dB scale is useful for analyzing a system of
cascaded elements.
P
1
P
4
Element 1 Element 2 Element 3
1
2
2
3
3
4
1
4
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
=
P
2
P
3
ELEMENTS
Thus
1 2 3
1
2
10
2
3
10
3
4
10
1
2
2
3
3
4
10
1
4
10
log 10 log 10 log 10
log 10 log 10
dB dB dB dB
P
P
P
P
P
P
dB
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
dB
system
+ + =
+ + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
ELEMENTS
The dB of the cascaded elements are simply
added together. This illustrates the great
advantage of the decibel scale.
If the element has a loss, a negative sign
is placed in front of the dB value in the
preceding equation.
DECIBEL ABSOLUTE POWER
SCALE
The decibel scale can be used to denote absolute
power if a reference power is specified. If the
reference power is set to 1 mW, we have the dBm
scale defined by
dBm = 10 log P
where P is in milliwatts. This is read as dB relative
to a milliwatt.
SCALE
Example: If P = 2 mW, then
dBm = 10 log 2 = 3 dBm
Signs on the result are important. The dBm for
powers above one milliwatt (P > 1) will be
positive. The dBm for powers below a milliwatt
(P < 1) will be negative.
SCALE
The dB scale is defined as:
dB = 10 log P
where P is in microwatts. This is read as dB
relative to a microwatt.
SCALE
dBm
1
dBm
2

dBm
2
= dBm
1
+ dB
x

2
10 10 2 10 1
1
2 1
2 1
10log 10log 10log
,
x x
x
x
P
dB dB P P
P
dB dBm dBm
dBm dBm dB
= =
=
= +
Proof
dB
x
P
1 P
2
Section 1.3
Wave Nature of Light
Sometimes light behaves as a wave and sometimes
light behaves as a particle. We will look at both
behaviors.
1.3.1 Wave Nature of Light
Light is an electromagnetic wave that satisfies
Maxwells Equations.
The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of
frequencies classified into groups.
Wave Nature of Light
10
16
10
15
10
14
10
13
10
12
10
11
10
10
10
9
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
1
Ultraviolet
Visible
Infrared
Millimeter
waves
Microwaves
Radio
Power
Frequency (Hz)
WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
Most of the frequencies in fiber optic systems are
In the Infrared.
Wavelength and frequency are related by:
f
v
=
where v is the velocity of the wave in the medium.
In free space,
v = c = 3 x10
8
m/s
(1.3)
All materials slow down the light waves, so v < c in
all materials. If the material is changed, then the
wave velocity changes along with the wavelength.
The frequency remains constant, only the velocity
and the wavelength will change.
Most fiber optic communications systems operate
in the infrared region of the spectrum.

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0
Wavelength (m)
Ultraviolet
Visible
Infrared
Optical Spectrum (Partial)
Blue Red
Example: If is 0.85 m, find the frequency. In
this example the medium is not specified, so let
us assume that the medium is free space.
8
14
6
3 10 /
3.53 10
0.85 10
c m s
f Hz
m

= = =

The period of oscillation T is defined as the time
it takes for the wave to complete one cycle. The
period for the frequency in the preceding
example is then
14
14
1 1
0.28 10
3.53 10
T s
f Hz

= = =

Fiber optic systems must have low loss. For
glass low loss occurs at several wavelengths.
The major operation regions (windows) are:
Wavelength Window
0.8-0.9 m First Window
~1.300 m Second Window
~1.550 m Third Window
~1.600 m Fourth Window
These are all in the infrared.
1.3.2 Particle Nature of Light
Light is made up particles called photons. Each
photon has energy:
p
c
W hf h
h = 6.626 x 10
-34
J s (Plancks constant)
Shorter wavelength (higher frequency) waves have
greater photon energy.
(1.4)
PARTICLE NATURE OF
LIGHT
Example: How many photons are delivered each
second for a wave with average power P = 1W
at wavelength = 0.8 m?
The solution appears on the next slide.
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT
8
34
6
19
6 6
6
12
19
3 10
6.626 10
0.8 10
2.48 10
10 1 10
10
4.03 10
2.48 10
p
p
p
m
c
s
W h J s
m
J
W
photon
W Pt Joules
W J
photons
J
W
photon
= =
=
= = =
= =
The photon energy is:

The electron volt (eV) is another useful unit for
analysis of fiber optic systems. The electron volt
is defined as the energy acquired by an electron
accelerated across a 1 volt potential difference.
The conversion between electron volts and joules
is:
1 eV = 1.6 x 10
-19
J
The 0.8 m photon has an energy of:
(2.48/1.6) = 1.55 eV
The electron volt (eV) is another useful unit for
analysis of fiber optic systems. The electron volt
is defined as the energy acquired by an electron
accelerated across a 1 volt potential difference.
The particle nature of light is used in explaining
the light sources and light detector later in the
text.
Section 1.4
Advantages of Glass Fibers
Cost: The cost of fiber is very low, because glass is plentiful
and cheap.
Weight: Fiber cables are smaller than conducting cables
and weigh much less.
Strength: Fibers are strong and flexible, enabling them to go
around corners. Glass fibers have a very high tensile
strength.
ADVANTAGES OF GLASS FIBERS
High informatioHigh information
capacity: Glass fiber can carry
more signals then a conducting
cable.
ADVANTAGES OF GLASS FIBERS
Low Loss: As the modulation frequency
increases, coaxial cable losses increase at a
faster rate than do fiber losses.
Copper
Fiberer
d
B

l
o
s
s

(
1
k
m

l
e
n
g
t
h
)

Modulation Frequency(Hz)
4
7
3 dB
f
3-dB

3-dB OPTICAL BANDWIDTH
As light propagates down a fiber at low modulation
frequencies, its loss remains constant. At higher
modulation frequencies the signal power begins to
decrease.
The 3-dB optical bandwidth is the frequency at
which the optical signal power is reduced by one
half. It is illustrated on the previous slide.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
time
o
p
t
i
c
a
l

p
o
w
e
r
The 3
dB
optical bandwidth
f
a
f
3-dB
is half the frequency and magnitude of f
a

Average power
f
c
OPTICAL 3-dB BANDWIDTH

f
a
f
3-dB
f
c
TIME
O
P
T
I
C
A
L

P
O
W
E
R

OPTICAL 3-dB BANDWIDTH
The previous slide illustrates the 3-dB optical bandwidth.
c dB a
f f f
3
The signal attenuation is caused by the spreading of the
wave (pulse spreading) as it propagates down the fiber,
resulting in a lower peak power.
COMPARISON OF A FIBER CABLE
WITH A WIRE CABLE
A wire cable consisting of 900 twisted pairs has a
diameter of 70 mm. Each wire pair carries 24 voice
channels. The cable capacity is then:
24 x 900 = 21,600 voice calls
Compare this capacity to that of a T3 fiber cable containing
144 fibers having a diameter of 12.7 mm. At the T3 rate there
are 672 voice channels per fiber.

COMPARISON OF A FIBER CABLE
WITH A WIRE CABLE
The fiber cable has total capacity:
672 x 144 = 96,768 voice calls
This is 4.5 times the capacity of the wire cable. In addition,
the fiber cross sectional area is 1/30th that of a wire cable.
The represents a great savings in space required for
installation.
ADVANTAGES OF FIBERS
A. Fibers are insulators as opposed to conducting wires.
1) No current
2) No radiation from the sides of the fiber
3) No coupling between adjacent fibers

B. Fibers reject interference. The following forms of
interference have no affect on fiber systems.
1) RFI: radio frequency interference from TV, radio, radar,
or other electronic signals.
2) EMI: electromagnetic interference from lighting,
sparking, or electromagnetic radiation.
3) EMP: electromagnetic pulse due to nuclear events.
C. Fibers can be used near high power transmission
lines because of their insulation properties,
whereas wire systems would pick up a large amount
of noise.
D. Security: Fiber systems are difficult to tap.
E. Compatibility: Fibers are compatible with
conventional electronics.

F. Corrosion resistant: Fiber, as opposed to wire systems,
resist corrosion.
G. Large temperature range: Glass melts at high
temperatures.

Section 1.5
Applications of Fiber Systems
1) Cable TV: Frequency-division-multiplexing (FDM) is
used to transmit television signals over fiber systems. Each
television channel has a bandwidth of 6 MHz.
P
o
w
e
r

0 f (Hz)
6 MHz
TV Baseband Signal
FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
P
o
w
e
r

0 f (Hz)
6 MHz
TV Channel
f
o

The television signal can be modulated onto a sub-
carrier frequency f
o
. The baseband signal has been
shifted upwards in frequency.
sub-carrier
FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING (FDM)
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l

0 f (Hz)
6 MHz
1
f
1

Several television channels can be multiplexed onto different
sub-carrier frequencies and the result used to modulate a
light source.
f
3
f
2
f
4

6 MHz 6 MHz 6 MHz
2 3 4
Sub-Carrier Frequencies
Channels
FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING (FDM)
At the receiver the television signals are
demultiplexed by filters. Several tens of television
channels can be transmitted by frequency-
division-multiplexing (FDM) on a single fiber.
APPLICATIONS OF FIBER SYSTEMS
2) Telephone trunk lines: In 1976-77 large-scale
fiber lines were first deployed to connect telephone
exchanges at 45 Mb/s. Fiber data rates are now
beyond 10 Gb/s.
3) Transatlantic cables: In 1989 transatlantic
cables were introduced that could handle 40,000
voice calls. Now all the major oceans and seas have
fiber cables lying beneath them.
Joseph C. Palais 83
APPLICATIONS OF FIBER
SYSTEMS
4) Wired city: Due to increased demand, fiber-to-
the-home and fiber-to-the-curb systems are
available to bring higher data rates for video and
internet applications to businesses and to the
home.
5) Communications along electric railways: Fibers
are not affected by electrical interference from the
railways.
6) Communications along high voltage lines: Fibers
are not affected by interference from these lines.
7) Other video applications such as remote
monitoring and surveillance.
8) Local area networks (LANs), computers, file
systems: e.g., Ethernet.
9) Military applications such as tactical command
post telecommunications and fiber-guided
missiles.
Sensors: Measurements of temperature, pressure, velocity,
motion and more.
The following is an example for a hydrophone sound
sensor.
Fluid
Fixed Fiber
Light Source
Detector
speaker
sound wave
Monitor
Free Fiber
The hydrophone works on the principle of external
modulation. The light is modulated by motion of
the fibers, causing misalignments in the
transmission system, resulting in a change in
power received.
Section 1.6
Summary and Discussion
DECISIONS FACED BY DESIGNERS
Fiber or metal cable
Full-duplex or half-duplex two-way communications
Modulation format (analog or digital)
Multiplexing schemes
Summary and Discussion
Wavelength of operation
Type of light source
Type of fiber
Choice of all other components

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Joseph C. Palais 1.

Optical wavelengths are usually in the above units.

Joseph C. Palais 1.3 58

Joseph C. Palais 1.3 59

The photon energy is:

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