1

MICROPROCESSOR

2
MICROPROCESSOR

 The MICROPROCESSO is a programmable integrated

device that has computing and decision-making capability
similar to that of the central processing unit of a computer.

3
Characteristics Of MICROPROCESSOR

1. GENERATION

2. SPEED

3. VOLTAGE

4. PROCESS & SIZE

5. PACKAGING

6. DATA BUS

7. ADDRESS BUS

8. REGISTERS

9. WATAGE

10. CACHE MEMORY 4

 GENARATION

 INTEL PROCESSORS HAVE

EIGHT DISTINCT GENERATION
STARTING FROM

1. 8086 1st GENERATION

2. 80286 2nd GENERATION

3. 80386 3rd GENERATION

4. 80486 4th GENERATION

5. 80586 PENTIUM 1

6. 80686 PENTIUM 2, PENTIUM 3

7. 80786 PENTIUM 4

8. 80886 ITANIUM 1/ ITANIUM 2

SPEED

Microprocessor have TWO speed ratings

 CORE SPEED – This is speed with which

microprocessor executes instruction inside its
body

 FSB (FRONT SIDE BUS) SPEED –This is the speed

with which the microprocessor exchanges data
with the motherboard
VOLTAGE

Microprocessor have TWO Voltage ratings:

 INTERNAL VOLTAGE- The voltage with which the microprocessor
operates inside the body
 EXTERNAL VOLTAGE- The Voltage with which microprocessor
exchanges its data with mother board
PROCESS SIZE

It can be defined as the average linear distance between the

components inside the microprocessor core .As the process size
becomes smaller than the microprocessor becomes more fast and
more efficient & its power consumption becomes less.
PACKAGING

Packaging are of TWO types

 SOCKET-In Socket package the microprocessor is a square flat
plate & is placed in a corresponding socket of motherboard.

 CARTRIDGE-In a cartridge packet the microprocessor is a card like

and is placed in a vertical manner in the slot of the motherboard.
SOCKET PACKAGE ARE OF TWO TYPES

 PGA (PIN GRID ARRAY)- In case of PGA there are pins on the
underside of the microprocessor
 LGA (LAND GRID ARRAY)- In case of LGA there are dots on the
underside of microprocessor.
PGA SOCKET
LGA(LAND GRID ARRAY)
CARTIDGE PACKET ARE OF TWO TYPES

 SECC (SINGLE EDGE

CONTACT CARTIDGE)
 SEPP (SINGLE EDGE PIN
PACKAGE)
DATA BUS

 This is the set of wires through which the

microprocessor exchanges data
with the motherboard.
 Each wire can transform one bit of data at a time.
So the total size of the data bus specifies the
maximum volume of data that can be exchanged
between the microprocessor and the motherboard .
 Data bus also represent the memory bank size of
the microprocessor.
ADDRESS BUS

 These are the set up wires by

which the microprocessor
specifies different location
inside the RAM.
DATA BUS & ADDRESS BUS
REGISTERS

 These are the storage location

inside the body of the
microprocessor that are used
to store the data that is being
processed
WATTAGE

 This is actually the power consumption of the microprocessor

CACHE MEMORY

 It is a dedicated memory for microprocessor .Now it is inside

microprocessor. The levels are L1,L2,L3.Cache memory was introduced
from 386microprocessor . From 486DX2 a portion of cache memory
known as L1 cache is cut out from the mother board and placed into the
microprocessor die. From Pentium Pro L2 is removed from motherboard
&
 Together with it microprocessor forms a package Whenever it needs
some data it first looks into cache memory.
 If the data is not present inside the cache memory then it will search the
Ram. Cache memory is not an ordinary memory controlled by a cache
controller which adds intelligence to the cache .
SPECIAL FEATURES OF MICROPROCESSOR

 Super Scalar Architecture

 Dynamic Execution
 MMX (Multimedia Extension)
 Net burst Micro Architecture

 Dual Independent Bus

 Hyper threading
 Centrino
 Multi core Processors
SUPER SCALAR ARCHITECTURE

 These is a technology by which the instruction pipeline of the

microprocessor is divided into several stages as a result a given
instruction can be divided into several micro operation which can be
performed . This technology first introduce from Pentium 1
DYANAMIC EXECUTION

 Comprises of Three Sub Technologies -

 Branch Prediction
 Speculative Execution
 Data Flow Analysis
 These technology ultimately completes Super Scalar Architecture
 Introduced from Pentium Pro (6th generation)
MMX (Multimedia Extension)

These technology introduced from 5th generation .This is a

technology invented to add multimedia functionality to
microprocessor .Done by adding 57 new instruction with the original
instruction MMX based on a new technology named SIMD.

(Single Instruction Multiple Data). Later on MMX is carried on with

the name SSE(Streaming SIMD Extension) by INTEL
DUAL INDEPENDENT BUS

 In 6th generation when L2 Cache memory was removed fro

motherboard & placed inside the microprocessor package then the
microprocessor had two Data Buses
 One communicates between microprocessor & motherboard is

known as FSB (Front Side Bus ).

 Other communicates between microprocessor & the L2 cache
memory is known BSB (Back Side Bus )
NET BURST ARCHITECTURE

Base technology for Pentium 4. Divided into four Sub Technologies

 Hyper Pipeline Technology- In this technology instruction pipeline
is divided into 31 stages
 Rapid Execution Engine- This is a process by which Two
ALU(Arithmetic Logical Unit ) are working simultaneously with the
same speed of microprocessor core
 High Speed System Bus -By this process system bus of the
microprocessor can pump four times its normal output
 Execution On Trace Cache- In this process 12 KB of the decoded
instruction is always stored into L1 cache
HYPER THREADING

 This is a technology by which a single physical processor can be

logically represented as two processors . In this case processors
are built in such a way that it has one pair of general purpose
registers & control register & some architecture components . HT
introduced for
Server computers when Xeon was introduced but it was introduced
for desktop computers from Pentium 4 (3.06 GHZ).
CENTRINO

 This is a technology by which microprocessor can work with very

low power consumption but can produce very output & it supports
wireless connectivity. This processors are very suitable for Portable
Computers
CORE MICRO ARCHITECTURE

 Wide Dynamic Architecture

 Advanced Digital Media Boost
 Smart Memory Access
 Advanced Smart Cache
 Intelligent Power capability
 EM64T
 XD bit
 Intel TXT
 Intel DTS
 EIST
WIDE DYNAMIC ARCHITECTURE has the following
features:-

 Fourteen stage pipelines- As the number of stages decrease so the

clock speed can also decrease
 4 wide- Core microprocessor can execute four instruction per clock
pulse & in this way they can be more efficient inspite of lowering their
clock pulse
 Macro OPS Fusion- The core microprocessor can very efficiently fused
macro operation
 Micro OPS fusion-The core microprocessor can efficiently fused micro
operation
 Enhanced ALU- The ALU can process the paired instruction per clock
cycle
 Deeper Instruction Buffer- These facilitates more instruction to be kept
for microprocessor
ADVANCED DIGITAL MEDIA BOOST

 In this technology 128 bit SSE instruction can be perform in a single

clock pulse.
SMART MEMORY ACCESSS

 In this technology memory disambiguation process & prefetching

logic are used by which the memory can be filled up with data that
can be required in future
ADVANCED SMART CACHE

 In this technology two cores can share their respective L2 cache

This ultimately facilitates more L2 hit ratio & more efficient size of
the L2 cache
INTELLIGENT POWER CAPABILITY

 By this technology specific circuits inside the microprocessor core

can be powered down according the current requirement
EM64T(EXTENDED MEMORY 64 TECHNOLOGY)

 By this technology the 32 bit architecture is extended to support 64

hardware / S/W platform.
XD BIT (Execute Disable Bit)

 This is a technology by which a specific area of a Ram can be

marked as the non executable or disabled . If any virus or malicious
S/W wants to used this space then microprocessor can
automatically raise & alarm to the Operating System
INTEL TRUSTED EXECUTION TECHNOLOGY

 By this technology individual S/W & applications are executed in a

trusted environment where they will not be affected by malicious
S/W
DIGITAL THERMAL SENSORS

 This is a technology by which the microprocessor temperature can

be monitored & cooling system can be altered as per requirement
EIST(ENHANCED INTEL SPEED STEP TECHNOLOGY)

 This is a technology by which the operating voltages & the clock

speed inside the core of the microprocessor can be dynamically
altered
MATH-CO PROCESSOR

 This is a dedicated chip for Mathematical calculation specifically

with DECIMAL NUMBERS . At first Math Co Processor chip was
introduced as a separate chip & is numbering was Microprocessor
number+1.From 486DX2 it becomes integrated to microprocessor
dye .
CELERON , PENTIUM, XEON

From Pentium 2 onwards up to Pentium 4 the Intel Pentium Processors

have three classes
 Celeron
 Pentium
 Xeon
Functionality Celeron is the weakest & is used for Domestic purpose.
Pentium is the Middle Level 1 while Xeon is the Strongest & used in
Servers. Technically Celeron has less amount of cache memory ,less core
speed , less FSB speed then Pentium where as Xeon has more cache
memory more FSB speed &more core speed then Pentium
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CORE & CORE2

 Core micro architecture is base on 65 nanometer process

Core 2 is based on 45 nanometer process

 Core supports FSB speed up to 667 MHZ

Core 2 supports FSB speed up to 1.3GHZ

 Core supports core speed up to 2GHZ

Core 2 supports maximum speed up to 2.67 GHZ or higher

 BIOS

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 BIOS

 The BIOS (Basic Input/ Output system) is a software in the form of

programs stored on the ROM chips.

 The BIOS can also be defined as the set of instructions i.e. needed to
drive the hardware devices.

 More recent systems use a technology called flash ROM or flash

BIOS that allows code in the core chips to be updated by software
available through the BIOS or motherboard supplier.

 BIOS can be of two types :

1. Firmware BIOS
2. Software BIOS
Figure :1
 FIRMWARE BIOS

 They are maximum 16 bit instruction.

 Resides in the ROM chip.
 Does not need the help of any Operating System.
 Used for driving hardware devices .
 Any adapter cards (e.g. Display card, LAN card) which becomes
active at the very early stages of booting. At that time there is no
Operating System to help this adapter cards with
their respective S/W drivers. So, this adapter cards had to depend
entirely on Firmware BIOS of their respective long chips.

Figure:2
 SOFTWARE BIOS

 They can be up to 64 bit instructions.

 Stored in the form of files inside storage media like Floppy Disks,
Hard Disks, etc.
 Dependent upon Operating System.
 Resides with the Operating System.
 Software BIOS can be more sophisticated than Firmware BIOS.
 Firmware BIOS vs Software BIOS

O.S. S/W BIOS

S/W BIOS
O.S.
BIOS ROM Storage
Hardware F/W BIOS
Device
Figure:3

Firmware BIOS is only needed only when PC starts booting. The rest
of work process of PC is done mainly Software BIOS.
 BIOS UPGRADING

 The process by which you can provide additional functionality to your

motherboard ROM.
 Process:-EEPROM ( Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM ) can be
reprogrammed by only passing specific voltage. This operation can be very
easily carried on by using S/W instructions and
 POINTS TO BE REMEMBER FOR BIOS UPGRADING:-

a) Majority of the BIOS upgrade utilities are prepared in such a way

that they can run only from bootable Floppy. But now a days, you
can find some BIOS upgrade utilities which can directly run from
Windows.
b) Before doing any BIOS upgrade, you must write down all the
important CMOS settings and if the BIOS upgrade program allows
you to prepare a backup of your existing BIOS
 then always do it.
c) Always open the BIOS write open jumper.
d) You must ensure that the entire BIOS upgrading process must be
carried out without any power failures.
Components of ROM chip

Mother board ROM chip has four components:

1.BIOS
2.POST
3.Setup
4.BSL

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Components of ROM chip

 BIOS(Basic Input Output System):This is the collection of firmware

BIOS driver.
 POST(Power On Self Test):This module is activated when the PC is
switched on for checking the electrical integrity & system integrity of
the major Hard ware component.
 Set up: It's a menu driven program ,activated by pressing “DEL". Its
used to enter CMOS values.
 BSL(Boot Strap Loader):This is a small program for the suitable
bootable media & calls the master boot record from the media.

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CMOS

CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) chip is very small

SRAM chip that can held its contents by 0.1 micro ampere of current
that is provided by a 3.3 volt non rechargeable battery.
At the very beginning CMOS chip was a
separate chip on the mother board. It was produced by Motorola
and its numbering was MC146818.
Now a days CMOS chip is actually
embedded in the ICH chip. The CMOS area retains several
hardware and system information such as boot device priority,
DRAM timings, the types of storage devices etc.
The CMOS are also includes a real time clock which stores the system data
and time. Together the entire combination is known as RTC/NVRAM.
When the machine is switched off the battery helps the
CMOS area to written its contents. This contents will be checked by the PC
automatically at the next boot.
If the CMOS values are last due to any hardware
reason or by the exortion of the battery then at the very early stage of
booting PC will display messages such as “CMOS checksum error, press F1
to continue”.

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LOGICAL MEMORY ORGANIZATION

Basics
ROM SHADOWING

Basics
 Addresses in the UMA region are used by ROMs.

Reasons:
 The access time of ROMs is usually between 120 and 200 ns,
compared to system RAM which is typically 50 to 70 ns.
 System RAM is accessed 32 bits at a time, while ROMs are usually
16 bits wide
 Since there is RAM hiding underneath the ROMs anyway, most
systems have the ability to "mirror" the ROM code into this RAM to
improve performance. This is called ROM Shadowing.

57
 When shadowing of a region of memory is enabled, at boot time the
BIOS copies the contents of the ROM into the underlying RAM,
write-protects the RAM and then disables the ROM.

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ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)
 ROM

PROM(Programmable ROM)

True ROM is not at all upgradable. When PROM was introduced, the
ROM chip could be programmed only once. It is non-volatile. Such
PROM’s are used to store programs permanently . The key difference
from a strict ROM is that the programming is applied after the device is
programmed. They are frequently seen in video game consoles, or such
products such as electronic dictionaries, where PROM’s for different
languages can be substituted.
 ROM

EPROM(Erasable Programmable ROM)

An EPROM is an type of memory chip that retains its data when its
power supply is switched off. In other words, it is non-volatile. When
EPROM was introduced , we can reprogram our ROM chip several times
but the erasing operation had to be done by ultraviolet ray whereas the
reprogramming task had to be done by a ROM burner device.
 ROM

EEPROM(Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)

EEPROM is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other
electronic devices to store small amounts of data that must be saved when
power is removed , e.g, calibration tables or device configuration. When
EEPROM was introduced, the ROM chips can be reprogrammed by only
passing a specific voltage. This operation can be very easily carried
on by using software instructions & without removing the ROM chip from our
Motherboard.These software instructions are known as “BIOS Upgrading
Utilities”. So, nowadays, the ROM chips are also known as FLASH BIOS.

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63
without removing the ROM chip from your motherboard. This
S/W instructions are known as BIOS Upgrading Utility. So, now a days,
the ROM chip are also known as Flash BIOS.
 Types Of Upgradable ROM

 PROM( programmable read-only memory): This ROM can be upgraded

only once. To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device
called a PROM programmer or PROM burner.
 EPROM(erasable programmable read-only memory): Reprogramming Of
Rom chip several times is possible by this. Erasing operation is done by
ultra violet but reprogramming is done by a ROM burner.
 EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory):Reprogramming operation can be done by using a software
known as BIOS upgrading software and without removing the chip from
mother board.

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RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)
RAM

RAM can be categorized into:-

a) STATIC RAM (SRAM) , b) DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)
The difference between these two are as follows:-
 SRAM is made up of 6 micro transistors where as DRAM is made up of 1 micro
transistor and 1 capacitor.
 SRAM cells are arranged in a clustered fashion where as DRAM cells are arranged
in a matrix fashion. Due to cluster design SRAM occupies 30% more are than same
amount of DRAM.
 The 6 micro transistor together form a bistable latch with can held the data as long
as there is no clear signal. In case of DRAM the micro capacitors gets charged and
its charged condition represents

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 the data. As capacitors automatically drained out after certain period of
time so, DRAM always needs a refreshing circuit.
 As SRAM is entirely based on transistors. It can be very fast and it can be
made intelligent.
 The fabrication cost of SRAM is about 30% higher than that of DRAM.
 So, SRAM is used in small amount in high speed areas such as cache
memory, buffers etc. Where as DRAM is used for large memory areas
which need not be very fast. For example RAM of the main memory of the
computer.

68
 DRAM

DRAM cells are arranged in matrix fashions. The DRAM module consists of
several DRAM chips and a number of contact pins. There are many signals
associated with the DRAM such as CS(Chip Select),RD(Read),WR(Write) etc.
There are several technologies related with DRAM such as
 Page mode
 Burst mode
 EDO

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 SD
 DDR
 Dual channel

All the technologies are intended to increase the clock speed and the
overall bandwidth of the DRAM.
 Page mode

Also known as paging technology. According to traditional architecture

every DRAM cells has to be access by locating its row and column at
first. This locating of row and column leads to a delay which is known
as Latency. So, the actual access time for any data bit

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becomes a sum total of this latency time and the time for the accessing
the data bit.
In paging technology after finding out one data cell, the remaining data
cell of the some row can be access without locating their row and
only locating their column.
 Burst mode

In this technology after locating any particular data cell the remaining
adjacent three data cells can be accessed without locating their row
and column. So, the accessing scheme for Burst mode can be
represented as “x-y-y-y”. Where x specifies the accessing time of

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the first data bit and it also includes latency. Where as the three y
represents the accessing time for the three consecutive bits in the
same row and it doesn’t includes any latency.
The RAM which includes Page mode and Burst mode is known as
Fast Page Mode(FPM) RAM. FPM RAM module is available as 30
pin DIPP(Dual Inline Pin Package ) package or SIMM(Single Inline
Memory Module) .They are 16 bit wide and it is available for up to
486 microprocessor.

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 EDO (Extended Data Out)

In this technology the output buffer of the RAM is modified so that it can
written a data for some extended period of time even if EDO RAM is
available as 72 pin SIMM modules.
It is introduced from Pentium-I.
It is 32 bit wide.

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 SD (Synchronous Dynamic RAM)

This is a technology by which the DRAM becomes synchronous with the

mother board clock as a result latency due to speed miss match below the
mother board and the RAM can be totally removed.
SD RAM is available as 168 pin DIMM (Dual Inline
Memory Module).It is introduced from Pentium-II. It can have a maximum
speed up to 133MHZ. From SD RAM Intel specified some standards – It is
64 bit wide, working voltage 2.5 volt.
Standards Characteristics
PC-66 66MHZ
PC-100 100MHZ
PC-133 133MHZ

74
 DDR (Double or Dual Data Rate RAM)

This is the technology by which a particular DRAM can transfer twice the number
of data bits in one clock pulse than SDRAM. This is done with the help of two
technologies – Transferring data bits in both the edges of the clock pulse and
doubling the size of memory prefetch buffer. DDR RAM is available as 184 pin
DIMM. It is introduced from Pentium-IV. It is 64 bit wide. It’s effective clock
speed ranges between 200MHZ to 400MHZ.The standards for DDRRAM are –
working voltage 2.5 volt
Standards Characteristics
PC-1600 200MHZ
PC-3200 400MHZ
PC-2100 266MHZ
PC-2700 333MHZ
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 DDR2

This DDRRAM can transfer 4 times the amount of data per clock pulse than
SDRAM. It is 64 bit wide. Operating voltage 1.8 volt.
It was introduced from Pentium-IV , 3.06GHZ for 915
chipset. In this case the memory prefetch buffer has been increased 4 times.
DDR2 clock speed ranges between 400MHZ to 800MHZ. It is 240 pin
DIMM.
Standards Characteristics
PC2-3200 400MHZ
PC2-4300 533MHZ
PC2-5400 667MHZ
PC2-6400 800MHZ

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 DDR3

This DDRRAM can transfer 8 times more data per clock pulse than SDRAM. This
is done by increasing the size of the memory prefetch buffer 8 times.
It is introduced for Core-2-duo,Core-2-Quad processor
for Intel 3x series chipset mother board (P35,P43,G43,G45,G31,G33,X38,X48
etc). Operating voltage 1.5 volt. Available as 240 pin DIMM. It’s speed ranges
between 800MHZ to1600MHZ.
Standards Characteristics
PC3-6400 800MHZ
PC3-8500 1066MHZ
PC3-10600 1333MHZ
PC3-12800 1600MHZ

77
RAM

78
 RAM

Generations of RAM’s :-

79
RAM

Dual channel
This is the technology by which two DRAM channels can represents a
single memory bank as a result it can provide double the bandwidth
as in the single channel mode.
Each of these channels can be made up of one or two
RAM slots.

80
RAM

Memory bank
This is the amount of data that can be access by the microprocessor from the
RAM at a time.
It depends upon two factors :-
a) The size of the microprocessor data bus,
b) The size of the RAM data bus.
If the microprocessor data bus and the RAM data bus
is same then only one RAM slot is sufficient to fill up the memory bank. If
they are not equal then the number of RAM slots required to fill up the
memory bank equals to the microprocessor data bus divided the RAM
data bus.

81
Mixing of RAM speed
We can not mix different category of RAM in the same PC. But with in
the same category we can mix different speed according to our risk
because it may be that in such mixing the speed of the slow speed
RAM is considered by the mother board and the speed of the high
speed RAM is simply ignored.
Right now in order to remove such
defects Intel has introduced “Flex memory” technology where we can
mix different speed of RAM of the same category.

82
SPD chip (Serial Presence Detect)

This is a small EEPROM chip that is present in every RAM module from
SDRAM.
This chip stores several information regarding the RAM
module such as it’s speed, voltage, RAS (Row Access Strobe) and CAS
(Column Access Strobe) when the PC is switched on the mother board can
automatically get this information directly from the SPD chip.

83
THE MOTHERBOARD ARCHIETECTURE

84
THE MOTHERBOARD ARCHIETECTURE

 The motherboard (one is shown in the next slide) defines the computer's
limits of speed, memory, and expandability. A computer needs more than
just a CPU and memory. To accept input from the user, it needs devices,
such as a keyboard and a mouse. It also needs output devices, such as
monitors and sound cards, to cope with the powerful graphics and sound
capabilities of the programs available today. A computer also needs
"permanent" storage devices, such as floppy disk drives and hard disk
drives, to store data when it is turned off. It is the function of the
motherboard to provide the connectivity for all these devices, as well as for
the CPU, RAM, and support integrated circuits (ICs).
 Adapter or display adapters that might not be common. In that case, either
make sure the new board offers the same level of support or install the
appropriate add-on card(s) to bring the system up to the existing level of
operation.
 The motherboard is usually the largest circuit board found inside the
computer case. Motherboards come in a variety of shapes. One size does
not fit all, and careful attention to size and location of mounting holes is
required before installing a new motherboard in an older computer. A
motherboard needs to fit in the space allotted for it, be secure in its mounts,
be properly grounded, receive sufficient ventilation (for cooling of the CPU
and other heat-sensitive components), and must not conflict with other.
 Most "generic" motherboards will fit into "generic" computers. One reason some
people consider purchasing a PC clone is that it is easier to upgrade. Keep in
mind that a hybrid PC (assembled by a small vendor, made from untested
components) may be constructed of parts that may or may not be totally
compatible. There may also be questions about EMI due to interaction between
components or the way the parts set in the case.
 There are two major categories of motherboards: AT and ATX. The main
difference between them is the type of power supply and main power switch
each requires. When you order a new motherboard, be sure to first verify that it is
compatible with the case and power supply to be used.
BRIDGE ARCHIETECTURE

89
BRIDGE ARCHITECTURE

 This architecture was continued up to 440XX chipset. In this

architecture the motherboard had two important master chips.
 North bridge.
 South bridge.
 The mother board numbering depends upon the numbering of the
north bridge. The north bridge may be consisting of more than one
physical chips but in south bridge it was always a single chip. The
north bridge was responsible for controlling the system area
comprising of the microprocessor and D-RAM. The north bridge is
the fastest chip in the motherboard. The connection between north
 If you are working on a branded computer, you might be required to purchase a new
motherboard or other custom components from the same manufacturer.
 North bridge and south bridge were joined by PCI bus. Besides this is the PCI bus also
served the PCI slots. The south bridge chip was responsible for controlling high speed
peripherals such as display, hard disks, USB ports, sound etc. The communication
between south bridge and Super I/O was done by ISA bus which also serves the ISA slots.
The super I/O chip is responsible or controlling the slow speed peripherals such as
keyboard, mouse, pointer, ROM etc.
HUB ARCHIETECTURE

92
HUB ARCHITECTURE

 This architecture was introduced with the 8XX series chipset. In this
case the north bridge becomes MCH or GMCH (Memory controller
hub/ Graphics memory controller hub) and ROM becomes FWH
(Firmware hub). In this architecture AGP bus was introduced for
high speed graphics and it is directly connected to the MCH. The
communication between MCH and ICH is now done by hub
interface bus and PCI bus is now relieved from that duty. The ISA
bus is totally removed and the communication between ICH and
super I/O is now done by LPC bus.
DMI ARCHIETECTURE

94
DMI (Direct Media Interface)

 This is a much improved hub architecture i.e. introduced from 915

chipset. From this architecture AGP is removed and high speed
graphics is now produced by (PCIeX16) which is directly connected
to the MCH. (PCIeX1) is now available from ICH for other I/O device
purposes.
Expansion Slots, Cables and
Connectors
An Overview of Expansion Slots

 ISA
When the system is first purchased, it has certain
 MCA features which you can further expand by using
certain special circuit board called expansion
 EISA cards
 VESA Local Bus These expansion cards are inserted into
designated locations specified on the
 PCI motherboard. The spaces on the motherboard
where the expansion cards are inserted are called
 PCI-X expansion slots.
 AGP
 PCIe
ISA
MCA

 Supports data bus width of 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit.

 Supports data bus speed of10 - 12 MHz.
 Has lower noise level.
 Supports four types of slots: 16-bit, 16-bit with video extensions, 16-
bit with memory-matched extensions, and 32-bit(386 systems).
 Supports bus mastering. The bus mastering is a feature that
enables a device connected to the bus to send data directly to any
other device connected to the bus without involving the CPU.
EISA

 Bus width 32 Bit

Compatible with
8-bit ISA, 16-bit
ISA, 32-bit EISA
Pins 98 + 100
inlay Vcc +5 V, -5
V, +12 V, -12 V
Clock 8.33 MHz
VESA Local Bus

 Bus width 32-bit

Compatible with VLB
Pins 112 Vcc +5V
PCI

 The PCI is the short form of

Peripheral Component
Interconnect and was
introduced by the Intel
Corporation in the year 1992.
The PCI slots are mostly
used in Pentium-based and
higher computers for
connecting adapters, such as
network-controllers, graphics
cards, sound cards etc.
PCI-X
AGP
PCIe

 PCI Express,
officially
abbreviated as
PCI-E or PCIe, is a
computer
expansion card
interface format
introduced by Intel
in 2004.
Ports

 Port refers to the places on the computer, on the back of the

motherboard, where you attach any peripheral device to the
computer. A port that is commonly found on a desktop computer is
usually one of the following types:
 Serial port
 Parallel port
 USB port
 PS/2 port
 FireWire port
Serial Port
Parallel Port
Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port
PS/2 Port
Sound Port
FireWire Port
Cables and Connectors

 Cable is a wire or bundle of wires that are used for connecting a

peripheral device to a port or a motherboard slot. A cable is
insulated and has connector at its end.
 A connector is the part of a cable that is inserted in a port or a
motherboard slot. A connector comes in two forms male and female.
A male connector has one or more exposed pins. On the other
hand, a female connector has holes
Cables and Connectors

A Male Connector

A Female Connector
Identifying IDE Data Bus
Identifying SATA Hard Disk Drive Data Bus
Identifying Floppy Disk Drive Data Bus
Identifying Parallel Printer Cable Connector
Identifying Keyboard Cable Connector
Identifying Mouse Cable Connector
Identifying VGA Monitor Connectors
Identifying LCD Monitor Connectors
Identifying External Audio Cable Connector
Identifying Game Controller Cable Connector
OVERVIEW OF POWER SUPPLIES

125
 An Overview of Power Supplies

Identifying Types of Power Supply

1. Ferro-Resonant Power Supply

2. Linear Power Supply

3. Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

Power Supply Form Factors

 Power supplies are available in a few standard sizes and shapes.

These are called the form factors of the power supply.
 PC/XT Form Factor
 AT Form Factor
 ATX (NLX) Form Factor
PC/XT Form Factor

 Depth: 142 mm
 Height: 120 mm
 Width: 222 mm
AT Form Factor

 Depth: 150 mm
 Height: 150 mm
 Width: 213 mm
ATX (NLX) Form Factor
Power Supply Output and Ratings

 +3.3 V / +5 V Combination Maximum:

 Output Rating (Watts):
 Output Current Ratings (Maximum Load By Voltage):
 Minimum Current Ratings (Minimum Load Requirement By Voltage):
 Output Voltage Range:
 Peak Output:
 Efficiency:
 Auto Restart:
 Power Good Delay:
Power Supply Connectors

 The PC/XT, AT form factors all of them use the same pair of 6-pin
connectors. These connectors are called “AT Style” power
connectors. The two 6-pin connectors are usually labeled as “P8”
and “P9”.
 The ATX form factors all of them use a single 20-pin connector. This
connector is called “ATX Style” power connector. In this type of
connector only the first pin is square in shape and all other pins are
circular in shape.
Connecting to Drives
Pin Number Wire Color Signal

1 Yellow +12 V

2 Black +12 V Ground

3 Black +5 V Ground

4 Red +5 V
Power Supply Problems

 Line Noise
 Surges
 Lightning Strikes
 Brownouts
 Blackouts
Protection against Power Problems

ups

Surge Suppressor
 CMOS SET UP

136
CMOS SET UP

137
138
139
140
141
 PARTITION

142
PARTITION

Partitions can be categorized in the following ways:

(a) Primary, extended and logical.
(b) DOS and non – DOS
(c) Bootable and non bootable partitions.
(I)Primary , extended and logical:
Primary partition cannot be subdivided whereas extended partitions can
be subdivided into logical partitions. In the
master partition table you can create entries for maximum
four primary partitions and maximum one extended partitions.
(II)DOS and Non – DOS
DOS partition only support FAT based file systems whereas non – DOS
partitions supports other type of file system. Example: NTFS, HPFS,
ext2.
(III)Bootable and non – bootable partitions
Bootable partitions can boot up the pc with its operating system where
non bootable partitions cannot boot up the
PC with its OS. Bootable partitions is always a primary
partition so if you install operating system in some logical
LOGICAL SUBDIVISION OF A HARD DISK

 MPT- Master partition Table , EPT-Extended Partition Table

 MBR-Master Boot Record , VBR- Volume Boot Record
 JMP-Jump , BPB- Bios Parameter Block
145
 Partitions then they will definitely maintain their core booting files into
some primary partitions.
# LOGICAL SUBDIVISION OF A HARDDISK:
(a) MBR:
At the very first sector of any bootable harddisk there is a
master boot record. It occupies 512 bytes. It is having three
sub divisions.
(i) Boot strap code:
This area contains a self executable code that ultimately transfers
the control to the bootable partition during OS booting. It occupies
446 KB.
(ii) Master partition table:
This is a 64 GB area which can contain maximum four entries.
Each of these entries occupy 16 GB and stores information regarding any
primary or extended partition.
(iii) Signature byte:
This is a 2B area that contains a hexadecimal number (55AA)
which is used for validating the MBR.
(b) Volume boot record:
This is an area i.e. present at the beginning of every primary or logical
partitions. The VBR consist of the following areas.
(i) JMP (jump):
This area contains the instruction that tells the control to shift to
shift to the boot code.
(ii) BPB (BIOS parameter block):
This area contains different information about the partition i.e.
required by the bios.
(iii) Boot code :
This area contains the actual booting code.
(iv) Signature byte:
It contains hexadecimal number (55AA) i.e. used to validate the
particular partitions.
(c) FAT/MFT:
Both are certain data structure that stores several informations regarding
the data area. FAT is more simpler than MFT. FAT is only a link list that
represents all the available data clusters. MFT on the other hand is
actually a database that contains
 more information regarding each and every object i.e. stored in the
data area. FAT is present if there is FAT 16/32 file system whereas
MFT is present if there is NTFS.
(d) Root directory:
This is the topmost directory in the storage hierarchy of any given
partition.
(e) Data area:
This is actually the area where the user data is stored. These are
stored in the form of files. Files may occupy one or more clusters. As
a sector has a fixed size (512B) so the minimum size for any cluster
will be 512B.
(f) EPT:
This is a partition table i.e. formed at the beginning of the extended
partition. The EPT contains information about the logical partitions.
COMPUTER PERIPHERALS
Objectives

 At the end of this chapter you will be able to:

 Define what is an input device
 Identify different types of input devices
 Define what is an output device
 Identify different types of output devices
 Input Devices

What are Input Devices?

 When you work with the computer you enter your data and
instructions through some devices to the computer. These devices
are called input devices. The input devices are necessary to convert
data or instructions enter into the computer to a form which can be
recognized by the computer.
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Scanner
 Joystick
 Microphone
 Digital camera
Keyboard

 Keyboard is the standard input device attached to all computers.

The layout of keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the
type QWERTY. The computer keyboards consist of rectangular or
near-rectangular buttons, called "keys". The characters are
engraved or printed on the keys. A standard keyboard contains a
total of 101 to 104 keys.
 There are various variations of keyboard that are available in market
such as multimedia keyboard, Internet keyboard, folding keyboard
and wireless keyboard.
 Mouse

 Mouse is the pointing device used to move a graphical pointer on

the screen. This graphical pointer is also called cursor. Using mouse
you can give commands, draw images and perform other input
tasks
 There are several variants of mouse available in market today. One
of the most popular is optical mouse. An optical mouse doesn’t have
a ball. It uses a laser to sense the motion of the mouse instead.
Scanner

 The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we
want to input a picture a keyboard cannot do that. To input a picture
we need a scanner.
 A scanner is an optical device that analyzes images, printed text, or
handwriting and converts it to a digital image.
 The common scanner devices are:
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) reader
 Optical Mark Reader (OMR) scanner
 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) scanner
 Barcode reader
Joystick

 A joystick is an input device that is used to control onscreen objects

or cursor by maneuvering a small lever called stick instead of using
the cursor keys or mouse.. It is commonly used for controlling player
movements in video or computer games
 Output Devices

Introduction to Output Devices

 As similar to input devices require for inputting data, the computer

displays or print the output on devices called output devices. Some
of the commonly used output devices are:
 Visual Display Units (VDUs)
 Printers
 Speakers
VDUs

 The most popular output device is the VDU, which is the standard
output device. It is also called the monitor. It is a piece of electrical
equipment which displays images and texts as generated by a
computer without producing a permanent record.
 A monitor is usually consists of either a cathode ray tube (CRT) or
some form of flat panel such as a TFT LCD display. The following is
an image of a CRT monitor
Characteristics of Monitor

 The two important features that characterize a VDU are resolution

and aspect ratio. The resolution refers to the number of distinct
pixels in each dimension of a monitor that can be displayed. A pixel
(short for Picture Element) is a single point in a graphic image. It
generally represents a single dot.
 The aspect ratio is the ratio of the width of a graphic image to the
height of the graphic image.
Monitor size

 The normal size :-It is the size by which monitors are advertised and
referred to. This size is the diagonal measurement of the actual
display screen itself. However, the front bezel (The metal or plastic
frame surrounding the display screen is called a bezel
 The Viewable Image Size (VIS):-It is the portion of the monitor that
is actually visible. Typically, VIS is an inch or so less than nominal.
For example, a nominal 17-inch monitor may have a 15.8-inch VIS.
Refresh rate

 The refresh rate is the number of times an image is repainted or

refreshed per second. The refresh rate is expressed in hertz (Hz).
This means that if a monitor’s refresh rate is specified as 75 Hz, the
image is refreshed 75 times in a second .
 The refresh rate is dependent on the video card used. You can
change the refresh rate in the display properties. However, if you
change the refresh rate that the display or video card cannot
support, the display goes blank or the image becomes distorted .
 MONITOR

 Vertical refresh rate is normally referred as screen refresh rate. this can be
set by the Operating System from the control panel at the control panel's
display properties.
 The mother board display chip or the display card provides the VRR (vertical
refresh rate) to the monitor and from this VRR the monitor determines the
corresponding HRR .if the VRR is too high then the monitor circuitry may be
damaged and if the VRR is too low then there will be a flickering image .
 Normally the aspect ratio of a CRT monitor is 4:3.
 CRT monitor size is expressed in two ways –
1.monitor size :
2.veiweable image size
 Bandwidth of a monitor =no. of pixels per page .
MONITOR

 Dot pitch : dot pitch of a monitor is the diagonal distance between

the same color dot of adjacent triad. if the dot pitch becomes small
the picture, will be more crisp.
 RAMDAC(RAM Digital to Analogue Converter) :this is a circuit or
chip that is present inside the motherboard which converts the
digital display signals to analogue display signal before sending
them to the analogue monitor.
 VGA Standards : 640*480@16 colors.
the display mode above VGA are known as SVGA
(Super VGA).
Printers

 Another widely used output device is printers. A printer produces a

hard copy of a processed text or a result. A hard copy refers to a
permanent human-readable text or graphics taken on a physical
print media such as paper or transparency.
 A printer is characterized by following two features:
 Image quality: Measured in dots per inch (dpi).
 Speed: Measured in pages per minute (ppm) or characters per
second (cps).
Printers

Some of the commonly used printers are:

 Dot matrix printer (DMP)
 Inkjet printer
 Laser printer
Dot Matrix Printer

 A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer refers to a type of

computer printer with a print head that contains a cluster of pins.
The pins run back and forth on the page and print by impact, striking
an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against a paper similar to a typewriter.
 A dot matrix printer can print at a speed of 500 cps.
 Low resolution dot matrix printer: Uses 9 pins
 High resolution dot matrix printer: Uses 24 pins
 Inkjet Printer

 An inkjet printer refers to a type of printer where the printer sprays

tiny droplets of ink onto the media. These ink droplets are slightly
electrically charged. The ink droplet’s placement on the media is
then determined by the charge of a cathode and electrode between
which the ink moves towards the media.
 Inkjet printers can produce both color and black-and-white printing.
They offer printing speed of 2-4 ppm and resolution of 300-600 dpi.
 Inkjet printers are inexpensive, have low operating cost and produce
high-quality printouts. Because of this inkjet printers are the most
widely used consumer printers.
Laser Printer

 A laser printer refers to a type of printer where the printer uses a

laser beam to produce image or text on a paper. The main
components of a laser printer are drum and toner.
 A laser printer can print both in black-and-white and color. It can
print with a speed of
4-16 ppm and the resolution of 300-1200 dpi and higher.
USB(Universal Serial Bus)

 USB ports have 4 pins.

 Ports can be
1.Standard
2.Mini
 Total USB chain can be up to 25mt.
 A single USB cable can be 5mt maximum.
 USB hub can be created by adding more USB device.
 Maximum 127 no of UBS devices can be attached to form a USB chain.
USB

Basics
USB Port & Hub

173
Fire wire Ports & Connectors

174
Fire Wire

 High speed serial bus.

 High speed real-time data transfer is done by this. such as-

Aircraft, Satellite ,Automobiles.

 It has normally 6 pins.

175
Fire Wire

IEEE1394(Fire wire 400) IEEE1394B(Fire wire 800)

Variations Band Width Variations Band Width

S100 12MBps S1600 1.6GBps

S200 24MBps
S3200 3.2GBps
S400 49MBps

176
 SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)

 This is also known as Scuzzy Interface . This is a parallel interface .i.e used
for connecting several devices to the P.C . Such as Harddisk, CD Rom ,
Printer, Scanner . SCSI was introduced in 1979 as a high-performance
interface
PICTURES OF SCSI HARD DISK

178
 TYPES OF SCSI

 INTERNAL DEVICES : Communicate by a 68 pin interface which

may be present on the mother board or in Scuzzy controller
adapter card
 EXTERNAL DEVICES: Communicate with the P.C by using 50 pin
or 68 pin external ports .
 These ports can be Centronic ports or HDDB (High Definition Data
Bus Ports )

179
 SCSI CABLES

 A cables : 50 wires 8 bit

 P cables : 68 cables 16 bit

 D cables : 80 wires 16 bit

180
 SCSI VERSIONS

 SCSI 1 (8 Bits 5 MHz)

 SCSI 2 : Can be categorize into two ways
i) Standard Operating at 5MHz
Fast Operating at 10 MHz
ii) Narrow Operating at 8 bit
Wide Operating at 32 bit
 SCSI 3
i) Narrow: 8 bit
Wide : 16 bit or 32 bit
ii) Ultra 20 MHz
Ultra 2 40 MHz
Ultra 3 80 MHz

181
 SCSI ID

 I n any Computer you can create a chain of Scuzzy devices & each
chain supports maximum 16 devices . These devices assigned
unique Scuzzy id from 0-15 . These id can be assigned by jumper
settings or by Software

182
 TERMINATION

 Every Scuzzy chain must be terminated only the last device of the
chain needs to be terminated . Termination is required to prevent
bouncing of signals along Scuzzy chain

183
 LOGICAL UNIT NUMBER

 This is an unique number that can be given to seven device part

Scuzzy id. These are used primarily in hard disk drive arrays to
create one large logical drive out of several smaller physical drives.

184
 Floppy Disk Drive

185
Floppy Disk Drive
PARTS OF FLOPPY DRIVE

1) Head Assembly.
2) Spindle Motor.
3) Stepper Motor.
4) Sensor.
5) Logic Board.
6) Connector.
7) Face Plate.
 FLOPPY DRIVE

STORAGE DEVICES

Drive Media
Floppy Drive
CD/DVD Drive
Hard Disk Drive
 BASICS OF FLOPPY DRIVES

 Why we want to use Floppy Disk Drives?

a) To maintain compatibility with an old program or data stored on

such disks.
b) Provide read/write removable media.
c) Floppy Disk is an excellent medium for backing up, storing or
distributing copies of relatively small files such as word documents
etc.
The following table describes various floppy disks and their capacities.
Disk Size Capacity Description
5.25 inch 160 KB Single-sided, single-density.
5.25 inch 360 KB Double-
sided, single-density.
5.25 inch 720 KB Double-sided, double-density.
5.25 inch 1.2 MB Double-sided, high-density.
3.5 inch 720 KB Double-sided, double-density.
 Disk Size Capacity Description
3.5 inch 1.44 MB Double-sided, high-density.
3.5 inch 2.88 MB Double-sided, quad-density.
The only major differences between the 5.25-inch and the 3.5-
inch disk drives (other than physical size) are that the 5.25-inch
drive has a slot connector and the 3.5-inch drive has a pin
connector for engaging and spinning the disk, and they use different
power plugs and voltages.
 All floppy disk drives are connected to the motherboard's external
data bus by a 34-lead ribbon cable. This cable has a seven-wire
twist in lines 10 through 16. This ensures that when two floppy disk
drives are attached, the drive-select and motor-enable signals on
those wires can be inverted to "select" which drive becomes the
active target. The remaining wires carry data and ground signals.
The connector end of the cable with the twist always goes toward
the drives.
 HARD DISK DRIVE

194
HARD DISK DRIVE

195
Key Components of a Hard Disk

 Platters and Media

 Read/Write Heads
 Head Sliders, Arms and
Actuator
 Spindle Motor
 Connectors and
Jumpers
 Logic Board
 Integrated Cache
Geometry of Hard Disk Drive

 The geometry of a hard disk drive is the organization of data on the

platters. The geometry of the hard disk drive specifies how and
where the data is stored on the surface of each platter. The
geometry of the hard disk drive is usually specified by the following
numerical values:
 Heads
 Cylinders
 Sectors per track
 Write precompensation
 Landing zone
 HEAD ASSEMBLY

 HEAD ASSEMBLY ---- This is a collection of read write heads . It is

based on Voice coil mechanism .Due to the Voice coil mechanism the
hard coil head actually moves in an angular fashion . On the
recording media during read write operation the floppy drive head
moves in a linear fashion . In a hard drive there can be more than one
platters . So the head assembly consist of two heads on both
sides of each platters It should be remembered that only one head of
the head assembly can read or write at a time . Head always
maintains a microscopic distance with platters. Distance maintained
by cushions. Of airflow which levitates the head .If the head touches
the media at such high speed then that portion of the media
damaged..
198
 PLATTERS --- Are the data recording surface . These are hard
surface so the name hard disk
 SPINDLE MOTORS ---- This motor is very high speed motor
average (10000rpm) . Its rotates the media very fast during
read write operation

199
200
 FILTERS

 It should be remembered that the hard disk is always breathing .i.e

it can exchange air with the atmosphere through some microscopic
pore These air must be completely dust free So filter out dust
particles Hard drive have two filters
i)Breather filter
ii) Re Circulating filter

201
LOGIC BOARDS WITH CONNECTORS & JUMPERS

 Logic boards consists of electronic circuitry buffer chips,40 pin data

cable interface (Pata) 4 pin power cable interface (Pata) , Master
Slave jumper (Pata) , 15 pin power cable interface (Sata) 7pin data
cable interface (Sata)

202
Sectors per track
Hard Disk Drive Types

 A modern PC uses one or more of the following hard disks:

 IDE (ATA)
 SCSI
 SATA
 IDE (ATA) Hard Disk

Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) hard disks, also called AT Attachment (ATA)
or Parallel ATA (PATA), have been around for many years

.
 ATA-1
 ATAPI (ATA Packet Interface)
 ATA-2
 ATA-3:
 ATA/ATAPI-4
 ATA/ATAPI-5:
 Enhanced IDE (EIDE
 Fast ATA
 Ultra ATA
 SCSI Hard Disk

 SCSI (often pronounced as “scuzzy”) stands for “Small Computer

System Interface”. SCSI hard disks are generally used in servers
and high-end workstations because of the following advantages:

1. Improved performance over IDE and SATA in multitasking, multi-user

environments.
2. The ability to daisy-chain many drives on one computer
Serial ATA (SATA) Hard Disk

 Serial ATA (SATA) is the latest technology that is introduced to

replace parallel IDE/ATA. SATA has several advantages over
PATA, which are:

1. Superior cabling and connectors

2. Higher bandwidth

3. Greater reliability
 HARD DISK DATA TRANSFER

 Can exchange data in two Ways :

i)PIO (Program Input Output) : In this mode whenever hard disk

exchanges data with the Ram it involves the microprocessor .PIO
has several modes 0-4
ii) DMA (Direct Memory Access) : In this mode whenever hard disk
exchanges data with the Ram it can do so without any help from
microprocessor

208
 DMA can be classified in two types

i) Third Party DMA or Traditional DMA ---- In this case a special DMA
controller chip 8237(Slow DMA used)
ii) BURST MASTERING DMA or ULTRA DMA ---- In this case adrive
can automatically performed DMA itself & it is faster

209
Optical Drives

 Some of the commonly used optical storage devices are:

 Compact Disc – Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)
 Compact Disc – recordable (CD-R)
 Compact Disc – Rewritable (CD-RW)
 Digital Video Disc (DVD)
Types of Optical Disc Drives
CD-ROM Drive Components

 Optical "Head" Assembly

 Spindle Motor, Constant Linear Velocity (CLV) and Constant
Angular Velocity (CAV)
 Connectors and Jumpers
 Logic Board
 Audio Output and Controls
CD Writer Components

 A CD Writer has same components as those present in CD-ROM

drives. The only difference is that CD Writer has additional LASER
settings for writing data on the CD
 Write power
 Erase power
 Read power
PORTABLE COMPUTER DEVICE
Definition of Portable Computer

 The term “portable” means “movable”. Therefore a portable

computer can be defined as a computer that can be moved from
one place to another. The portable computers are also known as
mobile computers.
 . Today there are three basic types of portable computers: laptops,
notebooks, and sub notebooks.
Laptop Computers

 Laptop computers (or laptops)

are type of portable computers,
which usually weighs 1 – 8
kilograms, depending on size,
materials, and other factors.
Laptops have a removable,
chargeable battery pack that
enables users to operate it
without the need of connecting it
to main electric supply
Notebook Computers

 Notebook computers (also called

notebooks) are even smaller than
laptops and this reduction in size
becomes possible because of the
advances in integrated circuit (IC)
technology. Notebooks are
roughly of dimension 8.75 inches
× 11 inches × 2.25 inches, and
designers are into further
decreasing its size and power
Sub notebook Computers

 Sub notebook computers (also

called palmtops or handhelds)
are even smaller than the
notebook computers. They are
just of the dimension 7 inches x
4 inches x 1 inch. Because of
such a small size, they often
have limited functionality.
Laptop Motherboard

 Laptop Motherboards are

usually the proprietary of the
laptop manufacturer. Because
of this reason there is no
standardization of
Motherboards in laptops. The
only thing they have in
common is that they have a
very small Form Factor as
compared to desktop
motherboards.
Laptop Processor

Laptop processors are not as fast as desktop processors and there

size is also smaller than their desktop counterpart.
 Intel Core 2 Duo (mobile version)
 Intel Centrino Duo
 AMD Turion 64 and Turion 64 X2
 Transmeta Crusoe and Efficeon
differences between laptop and desktop processors

 Most laptop processors are soldered directly in the Motherboard,

which means they cannot be removed. If there is some error in laptop
processor, the entire Motherboard needs to be replaced.
 Laptop processors can be slowed down when they are not running to
their full capacity. The processor uses a technique called processor
throttling that allows the operating system to put the processor in
active sleep mode or slow-down mode.
 Laptop processors run at reduced clock rate than desktop processors.
This helps them to produce less heat when running at full capacity.
 Laptop processors consume less power which though make them a
slow performer but it greatly helps them to save battery life.
Laptop Power Supplies

 Laptops mostly run on batteries when not getting supply from the
mains. However, when connected to mains an AC adapter is used
to supply DC power to the laptop. This adapter is also responsible to
charge the battery side-by-side as long as the laptop is connected to
the mains.
 Batteries come in a variety of shapes and sizes, depending on the
make and model of the laptop. Most laptops use Nickel Cadmium
(NiCd), Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) or Lithium-Ion (LiIon).
Laptop Memory

 Laptops use smaller memory

modules that fall into two main
categories: SODIMM and
MicroDIMM. MicroDIMM have
144- or 172-pin configurations
and supports 64-bit data bus.
They have a capacity of 1 GB.
But they are more expensive
than SODIMMs
Laptop Display Device

 Laptop LCD screens are classified into two categories: Active Matrix
and Passive Matrix displays.
 Laptops use flat LCD screens that are about 0.5 inch thick. These
LCD screens have a dedicated power supply called inverter. Laptop
LCD screens are controlled by a video circuitry
Active matrix displays

 Active matrix displays uses the Thin Film Transistor (TFT)

technology to display the output. In this the display screen is
composed of number of thin transistors arranged in a matrix form.
Each transistor is responsible for lighting up a pixel and controls its
color. Because each pixel of the screen is powered individually by a
transistor, Active matrix displays offer good response times, good
screen resolution, and produce brighter and good picture quality.
The only disadvantages are that they consume more battery power
and also more expensive than Passive matrix LCD screens
Passive matrix displays

 Passive matrix displays are not as widely used as Active matrix

displays. These types of LCDs use a grid of conductive metal to
charge each pixel. Though the passive matrix displays are less
expensive than Active matrix displays but because of their lower
screen resolutions, slower response times, and poorer image
quality, they are rarely used in today’s laptops.
Laptop Storage Devices

 Laptops because of their

smaller size use storage
devices much smaller in size
than desktops. For instance
the hard disk drives used in
laptops are about 2.5-inches
wide and 1⁄2-inch thick and it
has smaller connectors. It is
much smaller than the 3.5-
inches hard disk drive used in
desktops.
Laptop Input Devices

Laptop Keyboard

 Laptop keyboards usually have a much lower number of keys than

normal computer
 The keyboards for laptops are integrated into the laptop unit, unlike
in desktops where keyboards are attached externally to the
computer. Because of the integration, the keyboards are difficult to
repair in laptops
Laptop Pointing Devices

 While both desktops and laptops use keyboards for typing in the
input, the function of a mouse is handled by pointing devices such
as a trackball or a touchpad in a laptop. Most of the pointing devices
in laptops are one of the following types:
 Trackball
 Touch point
 Touchpad
 Touch Screen
Trackball

 Trackballs were used in

earlier laptops. A trackball is a
small ball (approximately
0.5-inches in diameter) that is
inserted in the keyboard itself.
You can move the ball, using
your thumb or finger, to move
the onscreen cursor in the
specified direction. In addition,
you can use the click button to
select an item on the screen.
Touch point

 Touch point (also called

track point or finger
mouse) was introduced
by IBM in their ThinkPad
laptop series. It is a small
stick with a rubber tip
(approximately 0.25-
inches in diameter)
located above B and
below G and H on the
laptop keyboard
Touchpad

 Touchpad (also called track pad)

is a recent development in the
input devices for laptops. It was
developed to overcome the
limitation of trackball. It consists
of a electromagnetically sensitive
rubber pad (approximately of the
dimension 1-inch x 2-inches)
which is sensitive to touch of a
finger.
Touch Screen

 Touch screen used in laptops

work in the same way as those
that you have seen in bank
ATMs. Here the screen display
several buttons, you just touch
the screen location specific to
a button in order to select an
item from the menu. Touching
the screen button gives the
same result that you will get by
double-clicking an item on the
screen using your mouse.
Laptop Expansion Card

 To provide the expandability to laptop computers, a special type of

expansion cards are used in laptops called the PCMCIA (Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association) card. These
cards are also called PC cards
 The following are the four PCMCIA types:
 Type I:
 Type II:
 Type IV:
 Type III
PCMCIA types

 Type I: Is the original computer-card standard and works only with

memory expansion cards. These cards are 3.3 mm thick.
 Type II: Supports most type of expansion devices and network cards.
These cards are 5 mm thick.
 Type III: Is primarily targeted for laptops with removable hard disk
drives and is compatible with Type I and Type II cards. These cards
are 10.5 mm thick.
 Type IV: Is targeted for hard disk drives that are thicker than 10.5 mm.
The Type II card is the most commonly used type of PC Card, and
most systems have at least two Type II slots or one Type III slot.
Laptop Power Management

 The main objective of the power management is to save on battery

life. This is accomplished by shutting down the laptop components
that are not required to run on continuous basis.
 Most laptops include power-save modes that shut down the
components that are not in use. The power-saver mode is also
known by other names like hibernate, suspend or conserve.
hibernate mode

 In hibernate mode, the entire content of the memory is written onto

a special file called swap file and then the system is shutdown.
When reactivated, the file is read back to memory. The
disadvantage of hibernate mode is that it takes more time to
reactivate a system than suspend mode, but the advantage is that it
saves on battery life.
COMPUTER HARDWARE MAINTAINENCE AND
TROUBLESHOOTING
Introduction to Computer Maintenance

 A computer can be considered as an electronic machine. And like

any other machine it needs proper maintenance to perform at its
best. In order to keep computers in good working condition one
needs to perform a routine maintenance of the computer.
Using Software Toolkit

 In addition to hardware tools, a computer technician should carry

certain software that is normally required for troubleshooting.
 Bootable floppy disk
 Rescue disks
 Some software utilities
Bootable Floppy Disk

A computer technician should always carry bootable floppy disks for

each operating system (starting from Windows 95 to Windows XP).

 The minimum set of files that  The minimum set of files that are
are required for creating a required for creating a Windows
Windows NT 4.0, XP or 95/98/Me boot floppy disk are:
Server 2000/2003 boot floppy  COMMAND.COM
disk are:  FORMAT.EXE (FORMAT.COM)
 BOOT.INI  SYS.COM
 NTLDR  MSCDEX.EXE
 NTDETECT.COM  MSD.EXE (MSD.COM)
 FDISK.EXE (FDISK.COM)
Rescue Disks

 The rescue disk is the floppy disk that is used to start a computer
when the hard disk fails to boot
 The rescue disk also contains driver files that are required to load a
CD-ROM drive. Hence you can also use rescue disk to start a
computer in case computer fails to boot from CD-ROM drive.
 A rescue disk is created for each computer in service. This is
because a rescue disk contains computer’s configuration
information that is unique for each computer.
Software Utilities

 Original OS Installation CD
 Original Software CD: Microsoft Office Suite CD

 Various Driver Installation CDs

 Motherboard CD
 Antivirus Program CD
 Documentation CDs for OS and each of the above mentioned
software utilities.
Getting Help

Why Need Outside Help?

 The computer industry is a fast  Self training

changing industry. It is  Networking with others
impossible for a single person to
 Using Internet
get mastery on each and every
 Getting technical support
topic related to computers.
Hence it often becomes
necessary to get help from
outside resources when a client
has a problem and the answer is
not known to the technician.
Introducing PC Preventive Maintenance

The PC preventive maintenance refers to the maintenance tasks

performed to minimize the chances of computer failure and
increase the lifespan of the computer.

 It saves money:
 It saves time:
 It safeguards data:
 It improves computer performance:
Performing Basic Hardware Maintenance Tasks

Identifying General System Care Factors

 Environmental Factors
 Power Factors
Environmental Factors

 Temperature
 Humidity
 Dirt and Smoke
 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
 Power Factors

Power is another important factor that as a computer technician you should take care
of. This is because several computer problems are caused because of the power
problem. The power problem can cause data loss and can also cause permanent
damage to the computer components.

 Using power protection  Performing periodic checking

devices: You can use various
power protection devices like
surge suppressors, line
conditioners and
uninterruptible power supplies
(UPSes)
of the protection devices:
 Using dedicated circuits:
 Disconnecting power cord
during electric storm:
 Turning off power on blackout:
Caring for Monitor

 Keep your monitor away from direct sunlight, dust, and smoke.
 Make sure that the monitor has proper ventilation.
 With your monitor turned off, periodically clean the monitor screen.
Use simple cleaning solutions, like standard glass cleaner, and not
aerosol sprays, solvents or window-cleaning sprays.
 Never leave unattended monitor powered on for prolonged period.
 of a computer monitor.
 Never place any strong magnetic substance
 Never place any heavy objects on top of the monitor.
Caring for Keyboard

 Like monitor, keep keyboard away from direct sunlight, dust, and
smoke. You can even put a dust cover on the keyboard when not in
use, to protect the keyboard form dirt and dust.
 Ensure that food and liquids are kept away from the keyboard’s spill
area, which is a common cause of keyboard failures.
 Remove the keycaps to clean the underlying keyboard switches
Caring for Mouse

 Periodically cleanse the mouse ball by washing it with a plain water

or mild detergent, and dry it using a soft cotton cloth. You can
remove the mouse ball by opening up the bottom of your mouse.
 While the mouse ball is removed, cleanse inside the mouse by
using compressed air or soft cotton cloth to remove the dirt and dust
from the inside. You may also use tweezers to remove lint or hair
that got stuck inside the mouse.
 Always use a mouse pad. This reduces the amount of dirt being
accumulated on the mouse ball significantly. However, you should
cleanse the mouse pad periodically by using a mild spray cleaner.
Caring for Hard Disk Drives

 Avoid rough handling of the hard disk drive. This is because rough
handling may cause damage to the hard disk drive and thereby
causing the data loss.
 Never expose the internal circuitry of the hard disk drive to open air.
This may cause dirt or moisture being accumulated on the internals
of hard disk drive that may reduce the lifespan of the hard disk drive.
 Check that cables are properly connected and sufficient power is
being supplied to the hard disk drive.
 Never move a hard disk while it is still spinning.
Caring for Floppy Disk Drives

 Clean the read/write heads with the head cleaning kits, like special
head cleaning diskettes or solutions like methanol, as
recommended by manufacturer. Similar to hard disk drive, check
that cables are properly connected and sufficient power is being
supplied to the floppy disk drive.
 Verify the head alignment of the floppy disk drive and adjust the
same if required.
 Never expose the floppy disk drive to magnets.
 Never allow smoking near a computer.
Caring for Optical Media Drives

 The optical drives, like CD drives and DVD drives, may occasionally
get dirty from inside. Hence you can use optical media drive
cleaning kits to clean the optical drive like CD-ROM lens cleaner.
But an optical drive rarely gets dirt accumulated inside it and hence
you may not require performing cleaning the optical drive heads for
several months. However, you can look for cleaning the optical
drive, if an optical disk that is successfully read on other optical
drives, is not read in the optical drive that you are currently working
with.
Caring for Printers

 Printers have printer rollers that more often accumulate dirt and
dust. Therefore cleanse the printer roller frequently. To clean the
printer roller use soft cotton cloth moistened with alcohol.
 In case of dot-matrix and inkjet printers, verify for the tension on the
print head positioning belt.
 Laser printers consist of corona wires that require periodic cleaning
using a foam scrub moistened with alcohol
 In case of laser printers, check and clean the printer’s fans and
vents on periodic basis.
Introducing Software Maintenance Utilities

 Disk Cleanup Utility In addition to the hardware tools listed

 Check Disk Utility
 Disk Defragmenter Utility
 Windows Update Utility
 Backup Utility
 Antivirus Programs
in the previous session, there are
many software-based preventative
maintenance tools.
The various software maintenance
utilities that you can use include
Disk Cleanup Utility

 Compressed old files  Optional Windows components

 Temporary internet files that users are not using

 Temporary Windows files  Installed programs files that

 Downloaded program files users are not using

 Setup log files
 Recycle Bin
 Offline files
 Restore Points
 Deleting Unnecessary Files from Hard Disk Drive

 To remove the unnecessary files from a hard disk drive in Windows XP,
perform the following steps:
 Start Disk Cleanup, by doing any of the following:
 Click Start > Run. In the Open box, type cleanmgr, and then click OK.
 Click Start > All Programs > Accessories > System Tools > Disk
Cleanup.
 In Windows Explorer or My Computer, right-click the disk in which you
want to free up space. Then click Properties > General tab > Disk
Cleanup.
Removing Windows Components
Removing Installed Programs
Removing Restore Points

1. Start Disk Cleanup.

2. Click the More Options tab, and then under System
Restore, click Clean up. A dialog box is displayed as shown
in the following figure:
Check Disk Utility

1. Double-click My Computer, and then right-click the local disk that

you want to check.
2. Click Properties, and then click Tools.
3. Under Error-checking, click Check Now. A dialog box that shows the
Check disk options is displayed. The following figure shows the
Check Disk utility window in Windows XP:
Check Disk Utility from Command Prompt

 Click Start > Run. Type cmd in the Run dialog box. Click OK.
 chkdsk
 chkdsk volume:/f
 chkdsk volume:/r
Disk Defragmenter Utility

 Click Start > All Programs > Accessories > System Tools > Disk
Defragmenter.
Windows Update Utility

 Windows is constantly changing.

Microsoft frequently releases
updates of critical files to improve
the system performance or fixes to
bugs in the Windows. To update the
Windows with latest fixes, patches or
updates, go to Microsoft’s official
web site; search for the fixes,
patches and updates pertaining to
your version of Windows XP; and
manually download them from there.
You can then install these downloads
on the system. This is the manual
method of updating Windows XP OS.
Backup Utility

 Before you can actually start taking backup of data, you first need to identify what all
files are required to consider for backup.
 System State data
o The entire content of Registry
o The COM+ class registration database (RegDB)
o The boot files
 The files that contain important data pertaining to the organization
 The software that you have downloaded from Internet
 The files pertaining to your ongoing project (database, program source
code, documentation etc.)
 The My Documents folder
 The Outlook address book
 The Internet Explorer bookmarks
Identifying the Backup Methods

 Based on the files you have selected for backup and the
frequency of taking backups, the backup methods can be
classified into five categories. These categories are:
 Normal backup
 Copy backup
 Daily backup
 Incremental backup
 Differential backup
Normal Backup

 A type of normal backup is the full backup. In full backup, you take a
backup of all the files stored on the hard disk.
 A normal backup copy all selected files, and mark each file as being
backed up while copying.
Copy Backup

 A copy backup is similar to the normal backup. But the difference is

that it does not mark the files as being backed up. This type of
backup is useful for taking backup of single files between normal
and incremental backups, because it does not affect these
operations.
Daily Backup

 A daily backup copies all selected files that have been modified on
the date the daily backup was performed. It also does not mark the
files as being backed up
Incremental backup

 An incremental backup copies only those files that have been

created or modified since the last normal or incremental backup. But
similar to normal backup, it too marks the files as being backed up
while copying.
 The advantage of this method is that it is the fastest backup method
and requires the least storage space on the backup media. The
disadvantage is that it requires the longest time to restore.
Differential backup

 A differential backup copies only those files that have been

created or modified since the last full backup. Like copy or
daily backup, it too does not mark the files as being backed
up.
 The advantage to this method is fast recovery time,
requiring only a full backup and the latest differential
backup to restore the system. The disadvantage is that it
may take longer backup time and backup media space if
large amount of data has been modified since the last
normal or incremental backup.
 Identifying Which Backup Method to Use

 Always Using Full Backup: This method should be used if a project does not contain
large amount of data. This method ensures that all project files are backed up
irrespective of whether or not the files have been modified.
 Combination of Full and Differential Backup: This method is the most preferred
method of taking backup. You create a full backup relatively seldom: once a month,
or once a week, or on achieving some important point in your work. All other
backups you created are using Differential Backup method. However, this method
should not be used in situations where backup time and backup media space is
highly constrained.
 Combination of Full and Incremental Backup: This method should be used only in
situations where backup time and backup media space is highly constrained. For
other cases, the combination of Full and Differential Backup is most suitable. In this
method, you create a full backup relatively seldom: once a month, or once a week,
or on achieving some important point in your work. All other backups you created
are using Incremental Backup method
Using Built-In Backup Tool

 Click Start > All Programs > Accessories > System Tools > Backup.
 Click on Next. The Backup or Restore screen is displayed. You will be prompted to
select whether you want to backup files or restore files.
 Click on the Back up files and settings option. Click on Next
 Select the items you want to back up
 Select the location where you want to save the backup and type the name of the
backup file. Click on Next
1. Click on the Advanced… button if you want to perform some
advance backup operations like specifying type of backup you
need to perform, whether to take the backup now or later on, etc.
2. After selecting all the Advanced options or if you haven’t click on
the Advanced… button, click on Finish.
Daily Schedule of Preventive Maintenance Task

 Perform the following preventive maintenance tasks on a daily

basis:
 Take backup of data
 Check that computer ventilation is not obstructed by objects like
paper, books or boxes. These objects obstruct the flow of air in and
out of the computer. This causes the computer components to heat
up, which may eventually damage the components.
Weekly Schedule of Preventive Maintenance Task

 Perform the following preventive maintenance tasks on a weekly

basis:
 Clean the computer monitor.
 Clean the computer case.
 Verify that all peripherals are functioning properly.
 Run antivirus program on all drives on the computer.
Monthly Schedule of Preventive Maintenance Task

 Perform the following preventive maintenance tasks on a monthly

basis:
 Clean the inside of a printer.
 Clean the mouse and keyboard.
 Defragment all hard disk drives.
 Delete the unnecessary temporary files from the system
Bi-Annual Schedule of Preventive Maintenance Task

 Perform the following preventive maintenance tasks on a six-

monthly basis:
 Perform preventive maintenance tasks of the entire system,
extensively.
 Verify and check that all cables are connected properly to the
devices.
 Run the printer’s self-diagnostic test.
Annual Schedule of Preventive Maintenance Task

 Perform the following preventive maintenance tasks at least once in

a year:
 Reformat the hard disk drive, but take backup of all data first.
 Reinstall all software.
 Verify whether the computer needs upgradation. You can check this
by determining whether the computer with current components can
handle all the current workload efficiently.
Troubleshooting

 Identifying Steps of Troubleshooting

1. Defining the problem

2. Identifying the cause of the problem
3. Solving the problem
4. Verifying the solution
5. Documenting the troubleshooting
Defining the problem

 Listen to the client or the computer user.

 Prepare a questionnaire that you can ask to the client or the computer user which will help you
to identify the problem and the possible cause of the problem.
o Was the computer working properly before the problem occurs?
o When the problem did first occurs?
o What was the last thing that you were doing prior to the problem
occurred?
o What was the exact error message(s) displayed?
o Have you shifted the computer recently?
o Have you add/replace any hardware component?
o Have you add/replace any software program?
o Has anyone other than you access the system in your absence?
o Are there any environmental factors that may cause the problem?
o Have you attempted to do any troubleshooting on your own?
Troubleshooting Common Hardware Problems

 Troubleshooting Monitor Problems

 Troubleshooting Hard Disk Drive Problems
 Troubleshooting Memory Problems
 Troubleshooting CD/DVD Drive Problems
 Troubleshooting Floppy Disk Drive Problems
 Troubleshooting Printer Problems
Troubleshooting Monitor Problems

 There is no display on the screen.

 Verify that the monitor’s power is ON.
 Ensure the signal cable is firmly connected in its
appropriate socket.
 Verify that the brightness control on the monitor is at the
appropriate position, not at the minimum.
 Troubleshooting Monitor Problems

 The displayed image appears too dim or too bright.

 Verify that the Brightness Controls on the monitor is at the
appropriate position, not at the minimum. If required, you may need
to adjust the contrast control as well.
 Try changing the lighting in the room. In certain cases, overhead
lights can cause an image appearing on a monitor seems dimmer.
 Check the horizontal frequency of the monitor. If required, adjust it.
 If the monitor is new and performing above tasks does not solve the
problem, then the possibility is that the monitor itself is defective.
 If the monitor is old and adjusting brightness controls and overhead
lights do not solve the problem, then the possibility is that the
monitor is wearing away. Go for a new monitor.
Troubleshooting Monitor Problems

 The displayed image appears too big or too small.

 Adjust the H-Size, H-Phase or V-Size, V-Center controls.
 Change the resolution of the screen. This often move or
resize the image to give you the size you are looking for.
 Check the configuration settings of the display adapter
corresponding to the erroneous monitor to determine
whether you can configure the size and position of the
image from display adapter’s configuration setting. Most
display adapters allow you to do so.
 If the problem persists, send the monitor to the
manufacturer for repairing.
 Troubleshooting Monitor Problems

The screen is flickering.

 Increase the refresh rate of the monitor but within the maximum permissible
range
 Click Start > Control Panel and then click on the link Appearance and Themes.
 Click on the link Display
 Click on the Settings tab and then click on the Advanced button
 Click on the Monitor tab,
 Click OK to exit out of the Display properties

1. In the screen refresh rate, click a new refresh rate. Click OK to

save the new refresh rate.
Troubleshooting Hard Disk Drive Problems

The system fails to recognize the hard disk drive.

 Restart the system and wait for about 30 seconds. This
sometimes solves the problem.
 Try booting from the Windows installation CD or your
Windows Emergency Startup Disk. If the system
successfully boots from this disk, type the following
command at the command prompt:
 COPY A:\COMMAND.COM C:\COMMAND.COM
Troubleshooting Hard Disk Drive Problems

You just installed a new hard disk but it doesn't work

 Check the hard drive manual and determine if you have correctly
configured the hard disk.
 Check for the jumper settings on the new hard disk drive.
 Check that all cables are properly and firmly connected to
the hard disk drive and sufficient power is being supplied to
the hard drive.
Troubleshooting Hard Disk Drive Problems

Windows is showing the hard disk capacity much less than

what it actually is.
 Go to the CMOS BIOS setup utility and reconfigure the hard
drive setting to "auto." After restarting, the BIOS should
recognize the hard drive during the startup process and
register the proper size.
 Possibility of installing a new and much larger capacity hard disk on a
much older system that have old version of Windows like Windows 95 (it
recognizes hard disks upto 2 GB only).
Troubleshooting Memory Problems

 There are various types of memory errors that can occur in a system which
includes but not limited to parity errors, system lockup and page faults
errors
 Parity errors.
 If you get an error message like “Parity error at
xxxx:xxxxxxxx,” , it indicates a parity error which is mostly
caused by a bad memory module. The only solution is to
replace the memory module.
Troubleshooting Memory Problems

General Steps for Troubleshooting Memory Problems

 Ensure that you have the right memory that is compatible with your
system
 Verify that you have configured the memory correctly
 Clean the socket and pins on the memory module.
 Verify that the memory modules are properly installed in their
sockets.
 Ensure that you have the most recent BIOS configurations
Troubleshooting CD/DVD Drive Problems

The CD/DVD drive is not working at all.

 Verify that you have a CD-ROM/DVD disk (as appropriate) in the
CD/DVD drive.
 Verify that the disk is inserted with its label side up.
 If the problem still persists, check all the connections to the CD/DVD
drive. Also ensure that sufficient power is being supplied to the
CD/DVD drive installed.
Troubleshooting CD/DVD Drive Problems

The CD/DVD drive is not accessing or reading the disk inserted

in the drive.
 Clean the lens of the CD/DVD drive.
 Update the driver settings for the installed CD/DVD drive
 Ensure that the CD/DVD disks you are using are scratch free.
 Ensure that you have inserted the compatible disk in the CD/DVD
drive
Troubleshooting CD/DVD Drive Problems

You are playing an audio CD or a Video CD in the CD/DVD drive

but can’t hear any sound.
 ensure that the audio cable is connected between the CD/DVD drive
and the sound card on your motherboard.
 Check that you are running an original Audio or Video CD and not a
pirated one
 You first ensure that the speakers are properly attached to the
computer and the volume is turned on.
Troubleshooting CD/DVD Drive Problems

The newly installed CD/DVD Drive isn’t working properly.

 Ensure that the newly installed CD/DVD drive is displayed in the
Device Manager utility.
 Also check for any possible conflicts of the CD/DVD drive with other
hardware devices.
 However, if the CD/DVD drive is showing in the Device Manager
utility, then uninstall the CD/DVD drive and reinstall the same using
the Add Hardware Wizard tool.
Troubleshooting CD/DVD Drive Problems

The CD-Writer installed on the system is unable to burn any CD.

 Close all opened applications when burning a CD.
 Check that there is at least 1 GB of free hard disk space.
 Ensure that the recording speed configured for the CD-burning
software is not more than the maximum recording speed that the
 CD-Writer can handle.
 Ensure that you have inserted a compatible disk in the CD-Writer
Troubleshooting Floppy Disk Drive Problems

Troubleshooting Floppy Disk Drive Problems

 check the alignment of the floppy drive
 Verify that the floppy drive is properly setup in CMOS
 Verify that the floppy disk inserted into the floppy drive is not
damaged.
Troubleshooting Printer Problems

 Ensure that the power on the printer is turned on and the printer is online.
 Make sure that the power cord is plugged into both the power outlet and the
back of the printer.
 Verify that the printer has paper in it.
 Clear any paper stuck inside the printer.
 Ensure that the ink cartridge (dot-matrix or inkjet printer) or the toner
cartridge (for laser printer) has sufficient ink in it.
 Clean the ink cartridge or the toner cartridge as the case may be to remove
the dirt that is causing the printing problem.
 Switch off the printer for sometime and then again power it on. This is used
to clear the printer buffer.
 Verify that the correct and updated driver is installed for the printer.
Using Software Diagnostic Utilities

Windows includes a several built-in utilities you can use to track

down and fix many common computer problems.
 Windows troubleshooters: These are a set of utilities built into
Windows XP that provide a step-by-step approach to solve most of
the computer problems. To run a troubleshooter from Windows XP,
open the Help and Support Center and click the Fixing a Problem
link. When the next page appears, click the link for the type of
problem you're having, and then click the link to start a specific
troubleshooter.
Using Software Diagnostic Utilities

 Device Manager: It is an administrative tool that is typically used to

administer the devices on your computer. Using Device Manager,
you can view and change device properties, update device drivers,
configure device settings, and uninstall devices.
 System Information: It is also an administrative tool that you can use
to fix the problems that you are unable to fix with the Windows
troubleshooters or Device Manager. To start the System Information
utility, click Start > Run. In the Run dialog box, type msinfo32 and
click OK.
Using Software Diagnostic Utilities

 Dr. Watson: It is a system utility that is used to track system events

whenever a system fault occurs. This is helpful in diagnosing some
tricky computer problems. You start Dr. Watson by clicking Start >
Run, and then type drwtsn32. You can also start Dr. Watson from a
command prompt. To do so, change to the root directory, and then
type drwtsn32.
 Dr. Watson stores the information in a log file with the name
Drwtsn32.log. You can view the log file and provide the information
that Dr. Watson collects to technical support personnel. This will
help the technical support personnel to have a better understanding
of the problem and provide the solution in much less time.
Folder Options
Offline files
Using Internet Options Link

 General: This specifies the homepage and color schemes and allows the
user to delete internet usage history.
 Security & Privacy: These specify whether the computer should allow
websites to undertake certain processes and download cookies, this panel
also gives access to the inbuilt popup blocker (Windows XP SP2 and later)
and the phishing controls (Internet Explorer 7).
 Content: Allows the parental controls and auto-complete to be configured
and also specifies how to deal with certificates.
 Connections, Programs and Advanced: These give access to other
aspects of internet settings such as the default modem connection and
email client, proxy settings and other advanced configurations.

Internet Options
 Using Mail Link

 The Mail link (equivalent filename - mlcfg32.cpl) allows for configuration of the mail client
in Windows, usually Microsoft Outlook. Microsoft Outlook Express cannot be configured
with this item; it is configured through its own interface.
Using Keyboard Link
Using Mouse Link
Using Power Options Link

 Specify how long it takes to switch of the display and hard drives
and how long it takes for the system to enter standby, if at all.
 To decide what to do when the computer's on/off button is pressed,
such as whether to shut down or to enter standby.
 Whether to allow Hibernation (some systems become unstable
when restarting).
 Allows the user to configure UPS (if available).
Power Options
Using Printers and Faxes Link
Using Regional and Language Settings Link
Using Security Center Link
Using Sounds and Audio Devices Link
Using System Link

 Display general information on the user's machine such as the

amount of RAM, CPU speed and type, the version of Windows the
system is using and the manufacturer.
 Edit the computer name in a network workgroup.
 Manage and Configure hardware devices, and view information
such as the manufacturer, user access and driver version of any
hardware device installed on the system via device manager.
 Enable/Disable system features such as automatic updates and
System restore monitoring.
 Configure advanced features such as performance logs, virtual
memory settings and roaming profiles.
Using Taskbar and Start Menu Link

 Specify whether to use Windows XP/Vista or Classic 9x/Me styles

on the taskbar and start menu.
 Specify whether the taskbar should Auto-Hide.
 Specify whether to show the clock in the notification area.
 Manage the tray icons.
 Configure Advanced options such as whether to show Printers &
Faxes in the start menu and whether to display My Documents as a
menu or as a link to a new window
Using User Accounts Link
Troubleshooting Windows XP Professional

Using Safe Mode Option

 Reboot your computer

 Press F8 when the Boot menu is displayed.
 The Safe Mode displays various menu options. Some commonly
used menu options of Safe Mode are:
 Safe Mode option: Starts the operating system with basic drivers
and services.
 Safe Mode with Networking: This option is similar to Safe Mode
option, but also includes basic networking services.
Using Safe Mode Option

 Safe Mode with Command Prompt: This option is similar to Safe

Mode option, but the Windows Explorer shell is not started.
 Safe mode starts minimal services that are listed under the registry
key,
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Saf
eboot.
 You should use Safe Mode options if:

An incompatible driver is installed

Windows Explorer shell is corrupted
An incompatible setting for the video card is made
Using Recovery Console

The Recovery Console is a command-line utility that gives limited

access to volumes on the hard disks. It is used to diagnose and/or
repair non-bootable installation of Windows XP.

You can use the Recovery Console to perform the following tasks:
 Restore damaged Windows XP boot sectors
 Repair master boot record (MBR)
 Format drives to FAT16, FAT32, or NTFS
 Have limited access to registry to enable and disable services
 Replace damaged system files, drivers, and registry hives
Recovery Console

 You can start the Recovery Console either from the four setup disks or from the
Windows XP Setup CD.
 You can also add Recovery Console to Windows XP start menu using either of the
following two methods:
 Install through unattended command:
 winnt32.exe /cmdcons /unattend
 Install inside Windows XP:
 x:\i386\winnt32 /cmdcons
 You must enter administrator password to access Recovery Console.
 It supports limited set of commands. MS-DOS commands that you can use in
Recovery Console are ATTRIB, CHKDSK, CLS, COPY, DEL, DIR, RD, REN, etc.
 It supports limited access to registry to enable and disable services.
 You cannot use wildcards (for example, del *.* ) in Recovery Console.
 You cannot copy to removable media in Recovery Console
UPGRADING A COMPUTER
Computer Up gradation– An Overview

 Computer industry is a fast changing industry. A new technology is

almost introduced daily. Therefore, as a computer technician it is
your responsibility to replace the existing computer components with
newer components to make the computer up to date. This is called
computer up gradation .
Preparing to Upgrade

The following checklist will help you to determine what all things are
required before performing the up gradation:
 Assemble the required toolkit
 Collect the required documentations
 Create a backup of all data
 Have a copy of the original Windows installation CD
 Set a system restore point (only in case of Windows Me/XP)
Assembling the Required Toolkit

 As a first step toward upgrading a computer, prepare a standard

toolkit containing tools that have already discussed (in the Chapter
“Computer Hardware Maintenance and Troubleshooting”). The
most important tools required for upgrading a computer include just
a simple screwdriver and Windows Operating System startup disk.
Collecting the Required Documentations

The various documentations that you should collect or prepare

 Copy of the motherboard manual that contains layout design of the
motherboard; describes various slots, sockets and interfaces on the
motherboard; describes the components that can be installed on the
motherboard; describes the jumper settings; etc.
 Copy of a list of all installed expansion cards along with the date on
which they were originally installed.
 Copy of the action plan that contains a list of tasks that you have
planned to perform for upgrading the computer and the target of the
completion of the task.
 Copy of the operating system documentation
Creating a Backup of All Data

 You should create a backup of all data on the computer. This is

helpful in the situations where because of up gradation all data
stored in the computer are lost. Having a backup will help you to
restore the lost data.
Having Original Windows Installation CD

 You should also be ready with the original Windows installation CD.
This may be required when installing additional components that are
not installed during original installation. For performing this task, the
computer might prompt for serial number or original distribution disk
for which installation CD is required.
Setting a System Restore Point

 Using the System Restore utility you reverts the system to some
previous state, identified by easily recognizable restore points, in
case the up gradation of the computer fails. However, restoring the
system does not cause any loss of personal data like Microsoft
Word documents, browsing history, e-mail, favorites, etc.
Disassembling and Reassembling a Computer

Identifying Steps to Disassemble a Computer

 Detach the main power supply and remove the system case cover
 Remove the expansion cards
 Remove the drives
 Remove the memory modules
 Remove the power supply
 Remove the processor
 Remove the motherboard
Step 1: Detaching the Main Power Supply and
Removing the System Case Cover

 Detach all external devices and peripherals that are attached to the
computer which include monitor, keyboard, mouse, speaker,
joystick, etc.
 Detach all network cables including modem phone line, if available.
 Search for the screws which are holding the computer case cover.
You can search whether the screws are located on the back or
sides of the computer case. Consult the manufacturer’s manual to
determine the exact location of the screws.
 Remove the screws with appropriate tools and store the screws in a
small plastic container from getting them lost.
 Remove the cover from the computer case usually by sliding the
cover back about an inch and then lifting it off.
Step 2: Removing the Expansion Cards

 Check the card for the cables or wires that

are attached to it and decide on whether it
would be easier to remove them before or
after you remove the card.
 Remove the screw that holds the card in
place. Place the screw in a small plastic
container. In some newer PC cases,
instead of screws, the expansion cards are
held by quick release clips.
 Gently and evenly pull the card straight out
of the slot. Do not wiggle the card side to
side as this can break the card, the slot, or
the solder
Step 3: Removing the Drives

.
 Note down the jumper settings
just in case a jumper gets
dislodged accidentally.
 Next, you should consider
removing all the drives installed
on the computer that includes
the hard disk drive, floppy disk
drive, any optical disk drive like
CD-ROM drive, etc.
Step 4: Removing the Memory Modules

 Push the plastic tabs (also

called locking clips), at the end
of DIMM slot, down and away
from the socket. This releases
the DIMM memory module
from its slot.
 Gently lift the DIMM out of its
slot.
Step 5: Removing the Power Supply

 Identify and remove the screws that are holding the

power supply to the computer case, from the back
of the computer case. As the power supply is quite
heavy, the best practice to remove the screws is to
first remove the first few initial screws. Then, giving
support to the power supply, remove the remaining
screws. This prevents the power supply from falling
in the computer case.
 Slide the power supply to the front of the computer
case and gently place it on the table.
 Remove the power connectors one-by-one from the
power supply, including connection to the
motherboard and any auxiliary fans. As soon as you
remove a power connector, document its location
on the power supply and the component to which it
is connected to.
Step 6: Removing the Processor

 Unclip the heat sink and pull it

away from the motherboard. Some
heat sinks require a screwdriver or
needle-nose pliers that help you
release the clip. However, be
careful not to apply too much force
or you could damage the socket or
the motherboard.
 Release the lever on the side of
the socket to loosen the clamps
that are holding the processor.
 Gently lift the processor out of its
socket.
 Step 7: Removing the Motherboard

 Document all the connections on the motherboard that include ribbon cables, jumpers, thin-wire
cables, interface cards, etc. Pay special attention to the cables that connects a device to the
motherboard. You can do this by labeling each cable that is connected to the old motherboard
and take note of the place where the cable comes from.
 Also pay attention to the orientation of each connector, especially those connectors that can be
attached in multiple ways, like the ribbon cables. Note that most ribbon cables have a red strip
on one edge of the cable. This red strip is used to orient the first pin—called pin 1—to its correct
position with the connecting plug.
 Check for whether any components, like memory modules and interface cards, are still remains
installed on the motherboard. If yes, remove all the installed components before proceeding
further.
 Remove the screws and standoff connectors (the small plastic supports) holding the
motherboard in the case.
 Lift the motherboard out of the computer case. However in some cases, the motherboard has to
be slid horizontally towards the bottom of the case to unclip the plastic standoffs and then lifted
out.
 When removing the motherboard take note of the orientation of the motherboard to its case.
 After removing the motherboard place it safely inside an antistatic bag.
Identifying Steps to Reassemble a Computer

 Install all the components on the motherboard including memory

modules, processor, and expansion cards, and also all connections
for the motherboard. You can refer to the motherboard manual or
the documentation that you have prepared while disassembling the
motherboard.
 Install the power supply at its proper location in the computer case
and connect it to the motherboard.
 Install all the drives at the appropriate drive bays and connect the
drive to the motherboard and the power supply.
 Attach all the external devices and peripherals to the computer case
and the main power supply.
 Slid back the computer case cover on the computer case and
tighten it using screws.
 Connect the computer to the main power supply.
Identifying Components Requiring Up gradation

computer up gradation is the cost-effective way to update the

features and capabilities of a computer.

Here are some of the most important components that you can
consider worth upgrading to improve the system performance:
 Computer memory
 Processor
 Expansion cards
 Disk drives
 Power supply
 Motherboard
Upgrading Computer Memory

 In most of the times, simply upgrading the computer memory greatly

improves the performance of the computer.
 The overall steps to insert a new computer memory module are
listed below:
 Preparing for memory installation
 Installing additional memory
Preparing For Memory Installation

Before you actually start installing the memory in a new slot, you
need to perform certain preparatory tasks that will ease the task of
installing the new memory module:
 Identify current memory capacity
 Identify the method to increase the memory capacity
 Select the correct memory type
Identifying Current Memory Capacity

 Click Start > Run. In the Run dialog box type the following command:
 Msinfo32
 Scroll down to locate the entry marked as “Total Physical Memory” in the
Item column.
 Note down the value in the “Value” corresponding to the total physical
memory entry. This is the capacity of the memory installed in the computer.
Installing New Memory

 To install a new memory module, you first need to disconnect the

computer from main power supply and remove the computer case
cover
 After successfully installing the new memory module, reassemble
the computer, power on the computer and allow it to boot. Follow
any instructions displayed on the screen. When the Windows XP is
successfully started, verify for the memory capacity of the computer.
Upgrading Processor

 Before you start upgrading a processor, you first need to identify

whether the motherboard that you are currently having is able to
support the new processor. You can determine this by checking
whether the socket, data bus, and address bus on the motherboard
support the new processor. You can also check the motherboard
documentation to determine the processors that are compatible with
the motherboard.
Upgrading Expansion Cards

 One of the most common system upgrades is to upgrade an existing

expansion card. You can upgrade the system with the more
enhanced video cards or sound cards. To upgrade for an enhanced
expansion card, you first need to remove the older expansion card.
 But even prior to physically removing the card, you should first
remove the driver, if there is any, installed for the card that you are
removing.
Preparing for Installing Expansion Card

Before installing or even before purchasing an expansion card, you

first inspect the expansion card that you plan to install.
 Will the card match with the bus type of the motherboard?
 Will the card fit into any of the available slots on the motherboard?
 Will the card work with the current system configuration and the
current operating system that you are having?
Inserting the Card in an Expansion Slot

 Disconnect the computer from main power

supply and remove the computer case
cover (as discussed earlier).
 Remove the new expansion card from its
antistatic bag. Hold the card by its edges
not by the slot connectors.
 Match the edge of the new card with the
slot in the motherboard.
 Gently but firmly press the card into the
slot, making sure it is fully engaged.
 Use the slot cover screws to secure the
card to the PC’s frame.
Installing the Necessary Drivers

After successfully inserting the card into an empty slot, reassemble

the computer, power on the computer and allow it to boot. After
Windows XP starts successfully, you then need to install the
required drivers for the new installed expansion card. There are two
ways to perform this:
 Using the Add Hardware Wizard
 Using the driver installation CD
Upgrading Disk Drives

 Upgrading your disk drive is another way to upgrade the computer.

The disk drive up gradation include replacing an existing CD-ROM
drive with a faster CD-ROM drive so that the CDs can be read at
faster rate; or replacing a low capacity hard disk drive with a high
capacity disk drive. But whatever disk drive you wish to upgrade, the
overall method is same. You first need to remove the existing disk
drive and then install the new drive in place of that.
 Replacing Floppy Disk Drive

 Fasten the drive to the bay.

 Disconnect the computer from main power supply and remove the computer
case cover (as discussed earlier).
 Note down the all cable connections to the floppy disk drive and label them
for easy identification. The data cable for a floppy disk drive consists of 34-
pin connectors.
 Remove the existing floppy disk drive (perform the same steps as to remove
a disk drive as discussed earlier).
 Take out the new floppy disk drive from its antistatic packaging.
 Slide it into the existing floppy disk drive bay from the front of the computer
and align it with the hole in the front of the system unit.
 Reconnect the ribbon cable and power cable in the same way as it was
attached in the removed floppy disk drive. You can consult the
documentation that you have prepared for floppy disk drive connections.
Replacing Floppy Disk Drive
Upgrading CD/DVD Drive

 The steps to upgrade CD drives (including CD-ROM and CD-RW)

and DVD drives (including DVD-ROM and DVD burners) are almost
same. Upgrading CD/DVD drive involves either replacing an existing
CD/DVD drive with an upgraded CD/DVD drive or adding a new
enhanced CD/DVD drive.
Installing an External CD/DVD Drive

 Connect the new external CD/DVD drive to an open USB or

FireWire port on the computer.
 Connect the power cord or adapter to CD/DVD drive and plug it into
a main electrical outlet.
 Ensure that the CD/DVD drive has power by pressing the button to
open the CD/DVD tray.
 Follow any instructions displayed on the screen to install the
necessary device drivers, if required.
Upgrading Hard Disk Drive

 Upgrading a hard disk drive is to increase the total storage capacity

of the system. You can either replace the existing hard disk drive
with a more capacity hard disk drive or add an extra hard disk drive.

IDE and SATA hard drives are connected to the motherboard almost
in similar fashion, but with few differences. These differences are:
IDE and SATA hard disk drives use different cables and
connectors.
SATA hard disk drives, unlike the IDE hard disk drives, do not
have any Master or Slave jumper settings.
SATA hard disk drives connect to a separate dedicated interface
port for each drive.
Adding an External Hard Disk Drive

 Connect the new external hard disk drive to an open USB or

FireWire port on the computer.
 Connect the power cord or adapter to hard disk drive and plug it
into a main electrical outlet.
 Follow any instructions displayed on the screen to install the
necessary device drivers, if required. You may required to insert the
installation CD that comes with the external hard disk drive for
installing the necessary device drivers.
Upgrading Power Supply

 Disconnect the computer from main power supply and remove the
computer case cover.
 Note down all the connections to the power supply.
 Remove the existing power supply (discussed earlier).
 Take out the new power supply from its packaging and place it on
the same location where the previous power supply was installed.
 Screw the power supply firmly at its place.
 Connect the motherboard power connector and all power
connections to the appropriate devices as per the connections on
the removed power supply.
Upgrading Motherboard

 Upgrading the motherboard is the major overhauling of the system.

However, in certain situations you need to upgrade the complete
motherboard. Some of these situations are:
 The original motherboard has failed.
 You want to upgrade the processor, but the new processor is not
supported by the original motherboard you are having.
 You want to install additional memory, but the memory you want to
install is not supported by the original motherboard you are having.
 You want to upgrade the computer, but this requires up gradation of
most of the computer components.
 Upgrading Motherboard

1. Disassemble the computer completely including removing the existing

motherboard (as discussed earlier).
2. Install all the necessary components on the motherboard that includes
computer memory, processor, expansion cards, disk drives and power
supply (discussed in previous sections).
3. Replace the I/O template of the older motherboard with the template
supplied with the new motherboard. The I/O template is the metal
bracket which frames the motherboard's external ports and connectors
like USB ports, mouse and keyboard plugs, etc.
4. Take the motherboard by its edges and hold it over the case. Align it so
that the I/O connectors on the motherboard (present on the rear side of
the motherboard) are properly aligned with the corresponding holes on
the I/O template.
Upgrading Motherboard

5. Lower the new motherboard into the computer case aligning all holes
on the motherboard with the matching holes on the computer case.
Also make sure that the I/O connectors on the motherboard are firmly
in contact with the corresponding holes on the I/O template.
6. Screw the motherboard firmly at its place.
7. Connect the cables that link the motherboard to front panel switches
and LEDs, and the cables that link the motherboard I/O ports to the I/O
connectors.
8. Reassemble the computer (discussed earlier in chapter).
THANK YOU

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