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Research Designs
J.Hamill@lmu.ac.uk

Colinwatsonleeds.co.uk
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Research Design
Is a structure that provides the
framework for the collection and
analysis of data.
The design influences your choice of
research methods.
Research Methods is a technique for
collecting data.
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Knowing your approach


Sir Francis
Bacon
1561-1626
has implications for your strategies

What kind of evidence is acceptable/ appropriate.

How such evidence is collected.

How the evidence is interpreted.
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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy




FI RST, be clear about your research questions and objectives.

A strategy is a general plan of how you will go about
answering your research question(s).

It will contain clear objectives derived from the question.
You must -
specify the data sources.

Consider the constraints e.g access, time, location, money,
ethical issues.
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Research Design




Be clear about your research question(s) and objectives.

You will need to provide valid reasons for all your choices.
The justification must be based on your research
questions and objectives.

Think carefully about every stage!
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Types of research design
experiment
survey
case study
comparative
grounded theory
ethnography
action research
cross-sectional and longitudinal
Note: They are not mutually exclusive
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Experimental Design
Rare in Social Studies, has been used in
social psychology.
Method of the natural sciences =
positivist
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Experiment

Involves:
the definition of a theoretical hypothesis;
the selection of samples of individuals from known
populations;
allocations of samples to different experimental
conditions;
introduction of a planned change on one or more of
the variables;
measurement on a small number of the variables;
control of other variables.
Sir I saac Newton
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Survey
Cross sectional design.
Data collected by questionnaire or
structured interview from a sample of
respondents
Looking for patterns of association /
correlation.
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Surveys
Allied to the deductive approach;

Are economical but you need time to
design and pilot the questionnaire;

Often involve qaires but can also involve
structured observation.

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Research questions appropriate for a
survey
1. Behaviour.

2. Attitudes /Beliefs / Opinions.

3. Characteristics.
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Research questions appropriate for a survey
4. Expectations.

5. Self-classification.

6. Knowledge.

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Main advantages of survey
ability to collect large amounts of data;

the relatively cheap cost at which these data
may be collected;

perceived as authoritative by some;

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The more structured the techniques...
A) The more respondents can be involved

B) The easier coding and pre-coding becomes

C) The easier quantification, comparison
and measurement becomes


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D) The easier it becomes to analyse statistically

E) The greater reliability likely

reliability is about accuracy, consistency, precision
and lack of error- the ability to produce results
which are dependable, repeatable.

The more structured the techniques...
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A) The less possibility for understanding
respondents meanings and motives

B) The greater the possibility of validity problems
arising e.g. do all respondents interpret qs the same
way?



But, the more structured the techniques...
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C) The more the richness of qualitative accounts is lost

D) The less it tells us about the subjective world
of the respondentshence the need for a
phenomenological /naturalistic inquiry.


But, the more structured the techniques...
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Case Study
Detailed / Intensive analysis of a single
case. School, Community, Family,
Organisation.
Can be both quantitative and
qualitative.
If qualitative likely to use inductive
approach.
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Case Study
Issue of Generalisability, how can a
single case be representative.
Case study offers intensive examination
of a single case, key issue is not
Generalisability but development of
ideas / theory = inductive.
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Comparative Research
Comparison, learn more about social
phenomena = welfare state, impact of
legislation if we compare to a different
setting
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Grounded theory


Barney Glaser
GTI
Data collection starts without any
formal theoretical framework.

Theory is developed from data by a series
of observations, which leads to
the generation of predictions that are
tested in further observations, which may
confirm or otherwise the predictions.

Theory is grounded in continual reference to the data.

.
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Ethnography



Firmly rooted in the inductive approach.

Developed out of field work in anthropology.

Purpose : to interpret the world the way the
locals interpret it.

Is time consuming./ problems of access.

Linked to participant observation.
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Ethnography
Listens to and engages in conversations
Interviews informants
Collects documents
Develop understanding of culture and
peoples behaviour within the context of
that culture.
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Action Research
Action researcher and client = school,
hospital, prison collaborate in the
definition of a problem and
development of a solution.
Emphasis is on problem solving /
practical solutions which are validated
through practise
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Cross Sectional Design
Usually associated with social survey.
Research data is collected at a single
point of time.
Select a number of cases for study and
thus allow for an explanation of
variation.
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Cross-Sectional Design
Interested in looking at relationships
between variables = draw causal
inferences.
Can be both qualitative and quantitative
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Longitudinal Designs
Involves time / costs.
Occurs over a period of time thus more
able to draw causal inferences.
Panel Study is based on a random
sample.
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Longitudinal Design
Cohort study, a sample of people who
share a certain characteristic = age,
unemployment.
Problems of this approach are
Sample attrition
Panel conditioning affects how respondents
behave.
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4.3 Multi-method approaches
Approaches and strategies can be mixed and matched

e.g. Qualitative and quantitative, Primary and secondary data.
e.g. Interviews can be part of exploratory work


Which method??? No easy
answers.
Bear in mind your research
objectives first.
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4.3 Multi-method approaches

Triangulation:

refers to the use of different methods within one
study in order to ensure that the data are telling you
what they think they are telling you.

e.g semi-structured interviews alongside qares to ensure
greater confidence in your conclusions.

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Four Criteria for Evaluation of
Social Research
Reliability
Replication
Validity
Generalisability (External Validity)
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Reliability: were your work to be
repeated by another researcher, would the
same result be produced?

If so then your research may be judged
as reliable

Interpreting Data
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Replication
Close to reliability, someone may wish
to replicate your research.

Thus need to spell out in detail
definitions, steps you undertook in
doing the research.
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Validity
Do your methods actually measure the
issues you have been researching.
This relates to the integrity of your
conclusions
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Generalisability
Also known as external validity.

Are your findings generalisable to other contexts, e.g. other
organisations?

Particularly applies to single case studies.
Be clear about your claims - if you do not claim that it is
possible to generalise to other settings then say so.



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Summary

The main research strategies are experiment, survey, case study,
grounded theory, ethnography and action research. Again, you
should not think of these as discrete entities. There may be a
combination of some of these in the same research project.

Research projects may be cross-sectional or longitudinal.

Multi-method approaches to research mean that different
Purposes may be served and that triangulation of results is
facilitated.
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Summary

You should take care to ensure that your results are valid and
reliable.

You should always think carefully about the ethical issues implied
by the choice of your research strategy.

Good luck!