Completion and Production

Operations
Well Completions
After drilling, the well is completed
for production of oil or gas
Except in remote locations,
workover/completion rigs are used to
complete the well
Workover
Rig
Crown
Rod basket
Traveling block
Bails
Elevators
Monkey board
Guy wires
Tubing
Tubing tongs
Work floor
BOPS
Brake
handle
Operator
panel
Winch Sandline
brake
Sandline
Counter balance
(Climbing harness)
Derrick
Workover Rig Is Used to
Run liners
Perforate
Stimulate
Install tubing or downhole equipment
Unload the well
Install artificial lift equipment
Plug off old zones
Make well repairs
Plug and abandon
Well Completion Techniques
Cased hole
Liner (cemented, slotted or perforated)
Open hole
Tubingless or Slimhole
Gravel pack (special case required for
control of formation sand)

Completion Type Advantages Disadvantages
Cased Hole - Pressure control
- Isolation of zones
- Control of stimulation
- Wellbore Stability
- More expensive
- Limited communication
to reservoir
- Possible cement damage
Liner - Less expensive than
casing entire hole
- Pressure and
stimulation control
(when cemented)
- Wellbore stability
- Cementing more difficult
- No control of flow if not
cemented
- Slots plugged w/formation
- Limited control of
stimulation
Open Hole - Maximum flow area
- Minimize damage
- No control of flow
- Limited or no control of
stimulation
- Hole collapse in weak
formations
Slimhole - Lower Cost - Limited Workover
capability due to small
hole
- Limited stimulation rate
- No zone isolation
Completions
Formation Damage
related to
Drilling & Completion
Fluids
Definitions
Reservoir Drilling Fluids (Called drill-in fluids)
Fluids used to construct wellbore in the producing
formation
Reservoir drilling fluids can be:
Untreated mud held over from the previous section
Treated mud held over from the previous section
New fluid formulated specifically for drilling the
reservoir
Completion Fluids
Fluids used after drilling finishes but prior to starting
production
Workover Fluids
Fluids used on remedial operations, usually on a well
that is already producing
Reservoir Damage by Wellbore
Fluids
Damage from wellbore fluids occurs by one or both
of
Physical reduction in pore or pore throat size
Relative permeability reduction (reduction in
permeability to hydrocarbons in the presence
of other pore filling fluids)
Reservoir Damage by Wellbore
Fluids
Damage should be minimized since
An undamaged reservoir gives maximum
information
An undamaged reservoir is the most profitable
for the client (and potentially the most
profitable for contractors)
High levels of damage could make a field
uneconomic
Remedial treatments are expensive and not
always successful
Cased and perforated completions

Cementing
Poor zonal isolation may cause production
problems leading to an early workover
Wash fluids may remove the cake allowing
increased invasion
Cement filtrate may damage the formation
Cased and perforated completions
Perforating
If the hole is washed out, the perforation
tunnel may not penetrate far enough into the
rock due to the thick cement layer
Damage can occur if perforating overbalance
or if the well is subsequently killed by a dirty
brine or other damaging fluid
Cased and perforated completions
Perforating
If the hole is washed out, the perforation
tunnel may not penetrate far enough into the
rock due to the thick cement layer
Damage can occur if perforating overbalance
or if the well is subsequently killed by a dirty
brine or other damaging fluid
Openhole Completions
Formation damage considerations
generally more important
Hole may be open for longer periods
Screens may get damaged or plugged
with filter cake when running in the well
or when circulating the mud
Openhole completions
Well brought on with cake flow back
The cake may plug the sand screens or the
gravel
Is it better to disperse the solids or not?
There may not be sufficient drawdown to
dislodge the cake across the entire production
interval
What Damage is Acceptable?
There is no simple answer
A certain level of permeability reduction (as
measured in a laboratory core flood test) can have a
small or large effect in a real well, depending on
factors such as:
Reservoir type and quality
Completion design
Depth of damage versus length of perforations
Magnitude of reduction
Mechanism and efficiency of filter cake removal (in
open hole completions)
Formation Damage During Drilling
Reduction in pore (throat) size
Mud solids invasion
Filter cake plugging
Formation fines migration
Clay swelling
Polymer adsorption/ precipitation
Scale formation
Formation Damage During Drilling
Relative permeability reduction
Wettability change
Fluid saturation change (e.g. water
blocks)
Emulsion formation
Mud Solids Invasion
Primary cause of damage in
wells completed open hole
Occurs during mud spurt (depth
of invasion ~ mm)
Increased by
Large overbalance pressure
Lack of bridging solids
High clay content
Reduced by
Bridging solids
Low fluid loss (especially
spurt loss)
Use of solids-free brines
Formation invaded by fine solids
Minimized by bridging solids
Avoided by using clear brine
Mud Solids Invasion
Generally only important when
Formations have wide pore throats
Muds have high spurt loss
Reservoir contains fractures which are
important for production
Openhole (non-perforated) completion
planned
Dirty completion brines used
Mud Solids Invasion
To minimize damage
Use correctly sized solids (calcium carbonate,
gilsonite, LCM)
Particles > pore throat diameter tend to block at
surface
Particles >1/3 pore throat diameter tend to block
inside pore
Particles <1/3 pore throat diameter do not block
efficiently
Use soluble solids (CaCO
3
, oil-soluble resin,
sized salt) to allow clean-up with wash fluids
Keep completion brines, tanks and lines clean
Mud Solids Invasion
Sandstone core showing solids invasion near surface


Core drilled with
INTERDRILL* NT
System

Depth of invasion
< 1 mm
IDCARB 150 on Ketton Limestone
Invasion of Fine CaCO
3
into
Ketton Limestone
Filter Cake Plugging
Perforations and Fractures Plugged by Thick Filter Cake
Filter cake
hard to
remove on
flowing well
or acidization
Perforation Fracture
Formation Fines Migration
Low rate
High rate
P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

0
100%
Pore Volumes
Permeability Reduction Due to Rapid Flow Through Cores
Formation Fines Migration
Some reservoirs contain significant
amount of potentially mobile fines
Pore filling/ pore lining clays
Microcrystalline cements (quartz, feldspar,
etc.)
Partially degraded rock grains
Fines can be mobilized
Mechanically (fluid flow velocity)
Chemically (pH change, salinity reduction,
deflocculant invasion)
Formation Fines Migration
Often worse after water breakthrough
To minimize damage
Use high salinity or oil based fluids
Do not rely on stimulation - this can
sometimes make it worse
Formation Fines Migration
Kaolinite stack with
potential to disaggregate
Conglomeration of loose
material around pore throat
Clay Swelling
Connate Water
Formation clays around sand
grains
in equilibrium with connate
water for maximum
permeability



Low Salinity Filtrate
Formation clays swollen and
dislodged by low salinity
filtrate - blocked pore throats
reduces permeability
Clay
Oil
Clay Swelling
Occurs in presence of low salinity brines
Smectite clays have high capacity to
swell (Na clays swell more than Ca clays)
Impact can be severe if
Smectites abundant in pores
Low salinity fluids used
Clay Swelling
To minimize damage
Use saline fluids or OBM
WBM should contain either
(i)-> 3% KCl (or K acetate) or
(ii) > 4% NaCl or
(iii)-Cationic polymer for permanent stabilization
Polymer Adsorption/ Precipitation
Sandstone core invaded by polymer based fluid
Polymer Adsorption/ Precipitation
Probably not important in perforated completions
since depth of invasion less than length of most perfs.
Can be important in non-perforated completions
Damage can occur after perforating
To minimize damage
Reduce overbalance and optimize perforation
Use polymers which degrade with time or on contact with
hydrocarbons
Use polymers which cannot enter formation
Scale Formation
Caused by incompatibility between
invading and connate water
Sea-water muds plus Ba
2+
, Sr
2+
and Ca
2+
in
reservoir
High pH muds plus magnesium and iron in
reservoir
Calcium brines plus CO
2
in reservoir
Common forms of scale include
CaCO
3
, CaSO
4
, BaSO
4
, SrSO
4
, Mg(OH)
2

Iron sulfide, iron oxides and hydroxides
Scale Formation
Impact
Near-wellbore region - limited mixing means
impact often small except in tight reservoirs
or in watered-out zones with little production
potential
Secondary recovery - water injection can
cause major scale problems
To minimize damage
Formulate filtrate to prevent scaling (when
pore water chemistry known)
Wettability Change
Oil-wet Sandstone
Oil flow restricted by
water block







Water-wet Sandstone
Oil flow restricted by
water block
Oil
Water
Wettability Change
Oil-wetting surfactants change surfaces
from water to oil-wet
May also occur if invading fluid can react
with hydrocarbon to produce surfactants
Experiments suggest
Minor impact if S
w
is low
Water blocking if S
w
is high
Wettability Change
To minimize damage
Reduce fluid surfactant levels
Minimize overbalance and invasion depth
Fluid Saturation Change
Wellbore fluid invasion reduces
hydrocarbon saturations and hence relative
permeabilities in near-wellbore zone
Common problem occurring to some degree
in most wells
May give high initial skin (~ 5) but will clean
up during production
Can cause early production pressure drop
sufficient to initiate problems like
condensate drop-out
Fluid Saturation Change
To minimize damage
Reduce filtrate invasion
Emulsion Formation
Formation of emulsion by mixing 2 immiscible
liquids (e.g. WBM filtrate and crude oil)
Resulting emulsion has higher viscosity than
either constituent phase
Emulsion formation and stability enhanced by
presence of surfactants and fine particles
(clays or asphaltenes)
Hard to diagnose or predict but potentially
serious
May clean up if viscosity increase is not
serious
Emulsion Formation
To minimize damage
Reduce fluid surfactant levels
Minimize invasion depth
Depth of Invasion
Mud formulation
Keep dynamic fluid loss low
Aim for thin cakes (cake permeability
10
-2
to 10
-6
mD)
Time in open hole
Mud overbalance
Depth of Invasion
Depth of invasion vs damage depth
Depth of damage is often less than depth
of invasion due to depletion of damaging
species (e.g. surfactants and polymers)
Excluding loss to fractures, depth of invasion
is generally < 5 ft and typically < 2 ft
(beyond reach of perforating guns)
Perforating
Establishes communication with the
reservoir by shooting holes through
the casing
Successful stimulation and sand
control operations are strongly
dependent on perforation parameters

Types of Perforating Guns
Hollow steel carrier gun
Expandable strip gun
Pivot gun
Tubing conveyed
Hollow Steel
Carrier Gun
Expendable Strip Gun
Expendable Enerjet
Pivot Gun
OD running in
1 11/16-in
OD deployed
3.79-in
Tubing Conveyed
Perf Gun
Perforation Charge
Liner
Main
explosive
charge
Detonating cord
Primer charge
Case
Perforation Charge
Shoots jet of metal (lining)
penetrating casing, cement and
formation
Speed - 22,000 ft/sec
Generates 10,000,000 psi
pressure upon impact
Low Temperature event - no
melting
Perforated
Casing
Casing Slotting (Hydro-Jetting)
Sand-water mixture is pumped to
sandblast (cut) slots or holes through
casing into the formation

Perforation Parameters
Perforation Damage Skin, S
pd
+ Perforation damage skin
Perforation length
Perforation shot density
Crushed zone permeability
Thickness of the crushed zone
S
h
l
k
k
r
r
pd
p pd
pd
p
=
|
\

|
.
|
|

(
(
|
\

|
.
|
|
1 ln
Vertical Converging Skin, S
v
+ Vertical converging flow effect skin, S
v

Perforation length
Perforation diameter
Formation permeability anisotropy
Plane-Flow Skin, S
h
S
h
=
|
\

|
.
|
|
ln
.
r
l
w
p
0 25
( )
( )
S
h
=
+
|
\

|
.
|
|
ln
r
fn l r
w
p w
u
u = 0 u = 0
Partial Penetration Skin, S
F
+ Skin due to partial completion
Height of pay zone
Fraction open to flow
Distance from the top of formation
to top perforation
Permeability anisotropy
Well Deviation Skin
+ Skin due to deviation
Height of pay zone
Deviation
Permeability anisotropy
Total Skin
( )
( )
s s
F
f s s f s
t F pd pd dp s
= + + +
1
O
s
F
s
pd
s
dp
s
O
F
, Partial penetration skin
, Perforation skin
, Deviation skin
, Formation damage skin
, Fraction of zone open to flow
Wellbore Conditions While
Perforating
Overbalanced
Underbalanced
Extreme Overbalanced

Overbalanced Perforating
Overbalanced perforating
P
hyd
> P
res

Completion fluid
in wellbore
P
res

Oil or gas
reservoir
Casing
Cement
Perforating gun
P
hyd

Underbalanced Perforating
Underbalanced perforating
P
hyd
< P
res

Completion fluid
in wellbore
P
res

Oil or gas
reservoir
Casing
Cement
Perforating gun
P
hyd

Extreme Overbalanced Perforating
Extreme overbalanced perforating
P
hyd
>>> P
res

Completion fluid
in wellbore
P
res

Oil or gas
reservoir
Casing
Cement
Perforating gun
Pressurized gas
P
hyd

Factors Affecting Performance
Downhole Parameters that
Affect Performance
Gun Clearance
Classifications of Perforating
Gun Systems
Underbalance Criteria
Perforating for Sand Control
Perforating for Fracturing

Near Wellbore Effects
Perforation friction pressure drop.
Microannulus pinch points.
Multiple competing fractures.
Fracture tortuosity.
Near Wellbore Microannulus Pinch
Points
Restriction Area
Perforation
Channel to
Fracture Wings
Wellbore
Near Wellbore Fracture
Tortuosity
u
Wellbore
Fracture
Plane
at Infinity
Fracture Reorientation
Two Additional Perforation
Parameters needs Consideration
Integrity of the cement/sandface bond.
A microannulus will normally be present.
Residual fractured sand grains in the
perforation cavity.
Can create a filter cake upon injection
which will increase the breakdown
pressure.
Perforating Parameters
Affecting Microannulus
Capsule gun Yes
Hollow carrier gun Modest
Small gun-to-casing clearance Yes
Liquid in wellbore Yes
Low shot density No
Gas in wellbore No
Parameter Promotes Microannulus
Hydraulic Cement-Sandface
Bond Versus Cement Integrity
Observed loss of cement hydraulic bond
does not imply that the cement has been
shattered.
Hair line fractures from the perforation
tunnel through the cement have been
observed.
The cement will mimic the fracture in the
formation.
Perforating Gun Trade Off, Vertical
Well, Not Oriented, No Microannulus
1 = best 3 = worst
Gun Fracture Multiple Tortuosity Destroy
Phasing Initiation Fractures Cement
Pressure Bond
0
0
3 1 3 1
180
0
3 1 3 1
120
0
2 2 2 2
60
0
1 3 1 3
Perforating Gun Trade Off, Vertical Well,
Not Oriented, Microannulus
1 = best 3 = worst
Gun Fracture Initiation Microannulus Multiple
Phasing Pressure Pinch Points Fractures
0
0
3 4 1
180
0
3 3 2
90
0
2 3 3
120
0
1 2 3
60
0
1 1 4
Deviated and Horizontal Wellbore -
Vertical Fracture
Use oriented 180
0
phased guns.
Oriented in plane of minimum
tangential compressive stress or
vertical up/down.
When PFP and vertical plane through
the wellbore approach 90
0
, then:
Cluster perforations over short
interval of wellbore with very high
shot density.
Other Perforating Considerations
Modest formation penetration sufficient.
Four to six inches.
Casing entrance hole diameter important.
Greater than 6 - 10 times maximum
proppant diameter.
Limit perforation friction to about 25
psi.
Minimum SPF determined by casing hole
diameter, injection rate, fluid properties, and
gun phasing.
Well Completions (Vertical Wells)
Single Zone
Multiple Zones

Single Zone Completion
* Single zone completion - One reservoir is producing.
Open-ended Packer
Multiple Zone Completion
* Multiple zone completion - More than one reservoir is
producing.
Open - ended
(Commingled)
Dual packer
Common Types of Completion
Equipment
Wellhead
Tubing
Packers
Bridge Plugs
Seating Nipples

Tubing
Like casing, type and size depends on
well conditions
Diameter of tubing must be designed
for expected flow rate
Pressure drop in tubing can restrict
flow/injection rate

Tubing Forces
Ballooning Buckling Temperature Piston Landed
length
T
o
t
a
l

m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t

Packers
Provides a seal in well to isolate
formation for production or
stimulation
Permanent and Retrievable types
Packer Completion
Producing
perforations
Isolated
perforations