Unit 3b

SYLLOGISMS AND
VALIDITY
 24 Testing Syllogisms by counter example

 Validity is judged solely on form.

 Many ways to test validity, we will focus on just two:
– Counterexamples
– Rules
Some girls are not critical thinkers.
Some students are not critical thinkers.
Therefore, some students are girls.
Remember: A syllogism with true premises and a false
conclusion is necessarily invalid.
Some women are not lawyers.
Some men are not lawyers.
Therefore some men are women.
 24 Testing Syllogisms by counter example

 Both had the form OOI-2

– No man is a flying being
– Some birds are not men.
– Therefore some birds are flying beings.
 Form: EOI-I
 Test
– No dogs are horses
– Some cats are not dogs
– Therefore some cats are horses
• Can't find a counter example?
There isn't one and it is a valid argument
You are not being creative enough
 24 Testing Syllogisms by counter example

 How to test for counter example?

 Start with a false conclusion
 Plug in your major (P) and your minor (S) in your Major
and Minor premises.
 Find a middle term that makes both premises true.
– All Socrates writings are pre first century writings.
– Some ancient documents are not Socrates writings.
– Therefore some ancient writings are not pre first
century writings.
– All___________________ are people.
– Some students are not ___________
– Therefore some students are not people.
 25 Distributed Terms

 Distributed term- the term refers to all members of its

category.
 All S are P-
– S is distributed
– P is undistributed
• All Dogs are mammals (Tells us something about all
dogs but not all mammals)
 No S are P-
– S and P are distributed
• No dogs are cats. We know something about all dogs
and all cats.
 25 Distributed Terms

 Some S are P
– Both S and P are undistributed
• Some mammals are cats (We don't know anything
about all mammals nor all cats)
 Some S are not P
– S is undistrbuted
– P is distributed
• Some astronauts are not men. (We know nothing
about all astronauts but we do know that all men are
not those being referred to in the subject.)
 UNIVERSAL subjects are distibuted
 NEGATIVE predicates are distributed
 26 Testing Syllogisms by Rules

 Five Rules for testing a syllogism

 If one is broken the syllogism is not valid
 Rule 1: In at least one premise, the middle term must be
distributed
 3 options
– M must be subject of an A,
 M is the subject or predicate of an E
– M is predicate of an O S P
A D U
E D D
I U U
O U D
 26 Testing Syllogisms by Rules

– All men are mortals

– No mortals are angels
– Therefore, some angels are not men.
 Passed rule 1?
 If not...Fallacy of the Undistibuted Middle.
– All men are living beings
– Some living beings are dogs
– Therefore some dogs are men.
 26 Testing Syllogisms by Rules

 Rule 2: If a term is distributed in the conclusion, it must

also be distributed in its premise.
 A conclusion cannot go beyond its premise.
– All men are mortals
– No mortals are angels
– Therefore, some angels are not men.
• Which term is distributed in conclusion?
• Is it distributed in the premise?
– Fallacy of Illicit Major
– Fallacy of Illicit Minor
• Some rocks are granite
• No granite is a sandstone
• Therefore some sandstones are not rocks
 26 Testing Syllogisms by Rules

 Rule 3: A valid syllogism cannot have two negative

premises.
– Some cats are not insects
– No dogs are insects.
– Therefore some dogs are not cats.
• Fallacy of Two negative Premises
 Rule 4: A valid syllogism cannot have a negative premise
and an affirmative conclusion
– All dogs are animals
– No plants are animals
– Therfore, some plants are dogs.
• Fallacy of a Negative Premise and Affirmative
Conclusion
 26 Testing Syllogisms by Rules

 Rule 5: A valid syllogism cannot have 2 affirmative

premises and a negative conclusion.
– All whales are mammals.
– No canaries are mammals.
– Therefore, come canaries are not whales

– All whales are sea creatures

– Some sea creatures are warm blooded animals.
– Therefore, no warm blooded animals are whales.
 Fallacy of Two Affirmative premises and a Negative
Conclusion
 26 Testing Syllogisms by Rules

 Last 3 rules can be made into one rule:

 The numer of negative conclusion must equal the numer of
negative premises.

 2 Options

 There is a negative conclusion with one and only one

negative premise
 There is a positive conclusion with ONLY positive premises.