The ElectroEncephaloGramm

Miyoung Yoon
Maria Hafeez
The History of the EEG
1875 Caton records brain potentials from cortex
1883 Marxow discovers evoked potentials
1929 Berger records electrical activity from the
skull
1936 Gray Walter finds abnormal activity with
tumors
1957 The toposcope (imaging of electrical
brain activity)
1980 Color brain mapping (quantitative EEG)
Hans Berger EEG Pioneer
In 1929, Hans Berger
Recorded brain activity from the closed
skull
Reportet brain activity changes
according to the functional state of the
brain
Sleep
Hypnothesis
Pathological states (epilepsy)

First EEG recorded by Berger
Gray Walter Brain Imaging
In 1957, Gray Walter
Makes recordings with
large numbers of
electrodes
Visualizes brain activity
with the toposcope
Shows that brain
rhythms change
according to the mental
task demanded

The toposcope by Gray Walter
Just a few facts about EEG signals
Amplitude/voltage: typically, in the range of MicroVolts (uV): <1 100 uV

Frequency: typically, in the range of 0.01 100 Hz

Wave/form: depends on brain area, physiological/
psychological state, clinical condition

Bioelectric Signals of the Brain
2 major groups
Spontaneous EEG: spontaneous electrical activity of the billions of
neurons of the brain. It is always there in the brain, and in general in
the clinical routine it is recorded from the scalp. The best way to
picture it as a voltage fluctuation that changes as a function of time.

3 important measures can be used for its description:
- its magnitude, i.e., amplitude (in microvolts, uV)
- frequency (Hz, vagy cycles/s),
i.e., how many times the signal crosses the baseline
- waveform/shape (e.g., sharp waves)

Even Related Potentials: changes in the EEG signals in relation to
specific events such as internal or external stimuli, events, or
movement
EEG in the States of Vigilance
Frequency Ranges

Beta: 14 30 Hz
Alpha: 8 13 Hz
Theta: 5 7 Hz
Delta: 1 4 Hz

Alpha Rhythm
Frequency: 8 13 Hz
Amplitude: 5 100 microVolt
Location: Occipital, Parietal
State of Mind: Alert Restfulness
Alpha blockade occurs when new stimulus is processed
Source: oscillating thalamic pacemaker neurons
Alpha Rhythm
The starting point of analysing awake EEG
8-13 Hz activity occurring during wakefulness
20-60 mV, max over posterior head regions
Present when eyes closed; blocked by eye opening or alerting
the patient
8 Hz is reached by 3 years of age and progressively increases
in a stepwise fashion until 9-12 Hz is reached by adolescence
Very stable in an individual, rarely varying by more than 0.5 Hz.
With drowsiness, alpha activity may decrease by 1-2 Hz
A difference of greater than 1 Hz between the two hemispheres
is significant.
10% of adult have little or no alpha

Beta Rhythm
Frequency: 14 30 Hz
Amplitude: 2 20 microVolt
Location: Frontal
State of Mind: Mental Activity
Reflects specific information processing between cortex
and thalamus
Beta Activity
Frequency of over 13 Hz; if >30-35 Hz gamma activity or
exceedingly fast activity by Gibbs.
Average voltage is 10-20 microvolts
Two main types in adults:
The precentral type: predominantly over the anterior and
central regions; related to the functions of the
sensorimotor cortex and reacts to movement or touch.
The generalized beta activity: induced or enhanced by
drugs; may attain amplitude over 25 microvolts.
Often enhanced during drowsiness or when present over a
skull defect
Should not be misinterpreted as a focus of abnormal fast
activity.

Theta Rhythm
Frequency: 5 7 Hz
Amplitude: 5 100 microVolt
Location: Frontal, Temporal
State of Mind: Sleepiness
Nucleus reticularis slows oscillating thalamic neurons
Therefore diminished sensory throughput to cortex
Theta Activity
The term theta was coined by Gray Walter in 1944 when it was
believed that this rhythm was related to the function of the
thalamus.
Occurs as a normal rhythm during drowsiness
In young children between age 4 months 8 years:
predominance over the fronto-central regions during
drowsiness
In adolescents: sinusoidal theta activity can occur over the
anterior head regions during drowsiness.
In adults: theta components can occur diffusely or over the
posterior head regions during drowsiness.
Single transient theta waveforms or mixed alpha-theta waves
can be present over the temporal regions in older adults.

Delta Rhythm
Frequency: 1 4 Hz
Amplitude: 20 200 microVolt
Location: Variable
State of Mind: Deep sleep
Oscillations in Thalamus and deep cortical layers
Usually inibited by ARAS (Ascending Reticular
Activation System)

Signal-to-Noise Ratio where is the noise coming
from? Artifacts
blinking
eye movements
muscles
respiration
ballisto-kardiogram
EKG
!!!50 Hz/60 HZ!!!
EEG!!!
EEG
Many neurons need to sum their activity in order to be detected by EEG electrodes.
The timing of their activity is crucial. Synchronized neural activity produces larger
signals.
EEG recording modes
Unipolar: Composed of a number of scalp leads connected to a common
indifference point (one electrode is common to all channels such as an earlobe
)
Unipolar
EEG recording modes
(cont.)
Unipolar average: Composed of a number of scalp leads connected
to a common indifference point (summation of scalp electrodes is
common to all channels)
Unipolar average
EEG recording modes
(cont.)
Bipolar: Achieved by the interconnection of scalp electrodes
Bipolar
Electrode Arrays (from 16 to 256
sensors)
16 sensors 64 sensors 256 sensors
The International 10/20
System
Terminology: 10/20 System
Nasion: point between the forehead and the skull
Inion: bump at the back of the skull
Location: Frontal, Temporal, Parietal, Occipital, Central
z for the central line
Numbers: Even numbers (2,4,6) right hemisphere, odd (1,3,5) left
Event Related Potentials
- If a stimulus is presented to a person e.g., a flash of
light or tone burst then the spontaneous ongoing EEG
activity changes: a series of transient waves occurs. This
series of waves is called ERP.

- The number of peaks and troughs in the ERP waveform is a
function of the complexity of the stimuli. In case of simple
stimuli this means only 3-4 waves. In case of complex
psychological stimuli (e.g., name of the person) 5-8 waves
are generated.

- One basic problem: the amplitude of the ERP waves is
much smaller than the backgroung EEG. Therefore, the
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) needs to be improved.
Alzheimer's disease
Outside glimpse: clinical perspective
Mild (early stage)
- becomes less energetic or spontaneous
- noticeable cognitive deficits
- still independent (able to compensate)
Moderate (middle stage)
- Mental abilities decline
- personality changes
- become dependent on caregivers
Severe (late stage)
- complete deterioration of the personality
- loss of control over bodily functions
- total dependence on caregivers
Apathy
Memory
(forgetting
relatives)
Evolution of the disease (stages)
One disease,
many symptoms
Loss of
Self-control
Video sources: Alzheimer society
2 to 5 years before
- mild cognitive impairment (often unnoticed)
- 6 to 25 % progress to Alzheimer's per year
memory, language, executive functions,
apraxia, apathy, agnosia, etc

2% to 5% of people over 65 years old
up to 20% of people over 80
Jeong 2004 (Nature)

Mechanisms of Neural and
Behavioral Dysfunction in
Alzheimers disease


A popular avenue of neural analysis in both humans
and AD mouse models are measures of neural
synchrony using scalp electroencephalogram (EEG)
or local field potential (LFP) recordings.
These methods reflect summed neural events across
large spatial regions and thus activity from thousands
of cells.
While lacking in spatial precision, these network-
level analyses are advantageous when studying
principles of information processing.
For instance, the encoding of an odor memory
requires information to travel from the olfactory
bulb, to the olfactory cortex, to the entorhinal
cortex, and finally to the hippocampus.
An understanding of complete system function
therefore must include multi-site recordings which
can assay large-scale network function such as
that provided by EEG and LFP recordings.
The characteristic EEG in AD contains a shift towards lower frequency
rhythms in the power spectrum (a slowing) and a reduction in fast
rhythm coherence .
In one early example, 55 out of 71 patients with various forms of
dementia had abnormal EEG activity.
Further, the authors found that the degree of slowing in the EEG
activity was associated with the magnitude of cognitive impairment.
EEG studies relating EEG measures with AD pathogenesis are less
common though. However, literature looking at EEG throughout stages
of AD may allow inference regarding pathogenesis.
First, EEG changes appear sensitive to transitions from mild
cognitive impairment (MCI) to AD, perhaps reflecting a reduction
in GABAergic inhibition.
Second, during early onset AD, there is an increase in theta power
and through disease progression there is a reduction in alpha
power.
Finally, enhanced theta power and lower beta power in some
cranial regions are significantly correlated with upcoming cognitive
decline.
Another AD-relevant group of investigations
utilizing EEG and LFP recordings come from
studies on epileptic activity.
AD humans and APP transgenic mice display
epileptic seizures which can be observed
behaviorally and by looking for epileptiform activity
with EEG or LFP recordings.

Alzheimer's disease
Inside glimpse: abnormal EEG
Decrease of synchrony
Brain slow-down
Images: www.cerebromente.org.br
EEG system: inexpensive, mobile, useful for screening