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p
g
v
2
2
f
H
in
in in
in
z
p
g
v
H + + =
2
2
out
out out
out
z
p
g
v
H + + =
2
2
L
H H
L
H
out in f
=
g
v
D
fL
H
f
2
2
=
g
v
D
f
L
H
f
2
2
=
Datum
z
p
g
v
2
2
f
H
in
in
PZ
z
p
H
i n
+ =
out
out
PZ
z
p
H
out
+ =
L
H H
L
H
PZ PZ
f
out in
=
If pipe is of constant diameter
Piezometric gradient
MINOR LOSS
Unlike major losses, minor losses do not occur over the length of the
pipe, but only at points of momentum loss. Since Minor losses occur at
unique points along a pipe, to find the total minor loss throughout a
pipe, sum all of the minor losses along the pipe. Each type of bend, or
narrowing has a loss coefficient, K
L
to go with it.
The form of the minor loss term varies according to the type of structure
causing the loss (e.g. valve, pipe bend etc.) but it usually takes a form like,
MINOR LOSS
Tables are available that show values for K
loss
depending on the type of
structure.
g
v
K H
Loss or
2
2
min
=
MINOR LOSS
MINOR LOSS
MINOR LOSS
Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912): observed that the flow characteristics of fluids
in pipes varied with the flow velocity.
At low velocities a dye injected at the pipe center flowed in a thin straight line.
Reynolds observed that the water flowed in thin laminae (sheets).
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
This is termed as laminar flow.
As Reynolds increased the flow velocity the flow characteristics changed.
At higher velocities the dye began to wobble and oscillate.
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
This was termed transition flow.
Finally as the pipe flow velocity was increased beyond a critical value the dyes
structure completely broke down.
This is called turbulent flow.
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
In this state the velocity is fluctuating and randomly moving in small
varied sized vortices.
The structure of turbulence is extremely complex (some people have argued it
is chaotic).
TURBULENT FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
However this fluctuating, erratic velocity pattern may be thought of
as being superimposed upon a mean velocity field. So if we plotted
the instantaneous velocity at A versus time:
A
Time
Velocity
v
average
Reynolds demonstrated that the type of flow that occurred depended on the
interrelationship between four flow parameters:
1. Average flow velocity (V)
2. Fluid density ()
3. Pipe diameter (D)
4. Fluid viscosity ( )
In fact he showed that the following non-dimensional number was very crucial; it
was thereafter known as the Reynolds Number,
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
v
VD
R ely alternativ
VD
R
e e
= =
where
v
is called the kinematic viscosity and is equal to
=
2.51
f R
2log
f
1
e
This is an implicit equation and must be solved by iteration (trial an
error).
FRICTION FACTOR FOR PIPE FLOW
Nikuradse found that if k
s
was very large then the following friction
factor equation worked. He called these rough pipes.
(
=
s
k
3.7D
2log
f
1
Note that there is no dependence on Reynolds number and this is
an explicit equation for f.
ROUGH OR SMOOTH PIPES?
In fact when flow occurs in a pipe, even it it is turbulent flow, there
is a very small region close to the pipe wall where turbulent
fluctuations are damped out and laminar flow prevails.
This is called the laminar sub-layer. If the pipe roughness elements
are contained within this layer then their effect is not felt by the
gross flow field and hence the pipe flow thinks it is a smooth pipe.
If the roughness elements protrude through the sub-layer into the
flow field then they affect the gross flow as a roughness.
Smooth Rough
COLEBROOK AND WHITE (1937)
These researchers conducted experiments on commercially
available steel pipes. They found that the following equation
described the friction factor and covered all types of pipes (rough
smooth and intermediate).
(
c
+ =
3.7D f R
1.256
-4log
f
1
e
Notes: (1) This is really just a generalization of Nikuradses results
into a equation for all pipe roughness; (2) for large Re the first term
in brackets may tend to zero; (3) for small k
s
the second term
vanishes; (4) in general this equation is implicit.
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR THE IMPLICIT EQUATION
The Colebrook-White relationship is used extensively in pipe
friction calculations and design.
(
c
+ =
3.7D f R
1.256
-4log
f
1
e
But the fact that it is an implicit equation has led researchers to
suggest easier ways to solve it (at least in pre-computer times).
MOODY DIAGRAM
Moody plotted f versus Re for values of k
s
/D to produce the Moody diagram. We use Moodys
diagram as an alterative to solving the Colebrook and White equation.
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
PROCEDURE
1. Calculate Renolds Number
2. Determine Flow Regime
3. Determine friction factor
4. Calculate pressure drop
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
EXAMPLE 1
Given Data
Oil properties: Density 847 kg/m3, Viscosity 34.3 cP, flow velecity 2 m/s
Pipeline properties: 510 mm ID, 20 km long, roughness 0.4 mm
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
EXAMPLE 1
1. Calculate Reynolds Number
Reynolds number = diameter * velocity * density / viscosity
= 0.51 * 2 * 847 / 0.0343
= 25188
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
EXAMPLE 1
2. Determine Flow Regime
Reynolds number = 25188
Relative roughness = 0.4 / 510
= 0.0008
Therefore, from Moody diagram flow regime is transitional
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
EXAMPLE 1
3. Determine Friction Factor
From Moody diagram, friction factor is:
Moody Friction Factor (f
m
) = 0.0270
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
EXAMPLE 1
4. Calculate Pressure Drop
Pressure Drop (kPa) = 0.5 * density * f
m
* length * velocity
2
/
diamter
Pressure Drop (kPa) = 0.5 * 847 * 0.0270 * 20000 * 2
2
/ 510
Pressure Drop (kPa) = 1794
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
EXAMPLE 2
Given Data
Oil properties: Density 847 kg/m3, Viscosity 34.3 cP, flow velecity 0.1
m/s
Pipeline properties: 510 mm ID, 20 km long, roughness 0.4 mm
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
EXAMPLE 1
1. Calculate Reynolds Number
Reynolds number = diameter * velocity * density / viscosity
= 0.51 * 0.1 * 847 / 0.0343
= 1259
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
EXAMPLE 1
2. Determine Flow Regime
Reynolds number = 1259
Relative roughness = 0.4 / 510
= 0.0008
Therefore, from Moody diagram flow regime is laminar
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
EXAMPLE 1
3. Determine Friction Factor
From Moody diagram, friction factor is:
f
m
= 64 / Re
= 64 / 1259
= 0. 0508
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
EXAMPLE 1
4. Calculate Pressure Drop
Pressure Drop (kPa) = 32000 * viscosity * length * velocity
/
diamter
2
Pressure Drop (kPa) = 32000 * 0.0343 * 20000 * 0.1
/ 510
2
Pressure Drop (kPa) = 8.43
CALCULATING FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS
HYSYS CALCULATION
Pressure Drop (kPa) vs Flow Rate (m3/h)
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Flow Rate (m3/h)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
D
r
o
p
(
k
P
a
)
HYSYS Calc Moody Diagram