Chapter 3: Calculations

and the Chemical Equation

The Mole Concept and Atoms
Atomic mass unit
1 amu = 1.661 X 10
-24
g


Because the mass of one amu is so small,
chemists deal with a much larger number
of atoms while working with chemicals
Mole
One mole is defined as 6.022 X 10
23
.
This refers to one mole of anything, eggs,
paperclips, atoms. One mole of anything
is 6.022 X 10
23
items. Much like one
dozen of something is 12.
This number, 6.022 X 10
23
is called
Avogadros number, named after the
scientist who conducted a series of
experiments leading to the mole concept.

The mole concept
The mole and the amu are related. For
atoms, the atomic mass of an element
corresponds to the average mass of a
single atom in amu

And

The mass of a mole of atoms in grams.
For example:
The atomic mass of oxygen is 16.00 amu.

And

One mole of oxygen atoms (6.022 X 10
23

oxygen atoms) has a mass of 16.00 grams

Another example
The atomic mass of iron (Fe) is 55.85
amu.

And

One mole of iron atoms (6.022 X 10
23

oxygen atoms) has a mass of 55.85 grams


And yet another example
The atomic mass of radium (Ra) is 226
amu.

And

One mole of radium atoms (6.022 X 10
23

radium atoms) has a mass of 226 grams


Molar mass
The mass of one mol (mole) of atoms in
grams
Note
One mole of atoms of any element
contains 6.022 X 10
23
atoms, regardless of
the type of element.
The mass of one mole of an element
depends on what that element is, and is
equal to the atom mass of that element in
grams.


This means
There are several conversions regarding
atoms, moles, and mass
Converting moles to atoms
How many atoms are in 4 moles of H?

4 moles H X 6.022 X 10
23
atoms/mole =
24.088 X 10
23
atoms of hydrogen or 2.409
X 10
24
atoms

In this case you multiply the number of
moles X the number of atoms in each
mole.
Converting atoms to moles
Calculate the number of moles of copper represented by
3.26 X 10
24
atoms.

3.26 X 10
24
= 32.6 X 10
23
(ok, I did this step to make the
math easier.)

32.6 X 10
23
/ 6.022 X 10
23
= 5.413 X 10
23
moles of copper.

In this case, to convert atoms to moles, I divide the
number of atoms by the number of atoms in one mol (by
6.022 X 10
23
)
Converting moles of a substance to
mass in grams.
What is the mass in grams of 5.6 mol of
Neon?

The mass of one mole of Ne is the same
as the atomic mass in g (20.18 g)

5.6 mol X 20.18 g/mol = 100.9 g of Ne
Converting grams to numbers of
atoms.
How many atoms would be in a gold ring
that weighs 25 g?
First, find the number of moles of Gold in
25 g. Gold has an atomic mass of 107.9.
So, 25 g / 107.9 g/mol = 0.2317 mol of
gold are in the ring.
Next, 0.2317 mol X (6.022 X 10
23
)
atoms/mol =1.395 X 10
23
atoms

When dealing with molecules. . .
Like O
2

or H
2
, double the number of atoms,
because there are 2 atoms per molecule.
Remember, one mole of something is 6.022 X
10
23
of whatever it is. If it is molecules, its

6.022
X 10
23
of them
.
If it is atoms, its 6.022 x10
23
atoms.
If there are 2 atoms per molecule you need to
double the number of moles.
2 X (6.022 X 10
23
) = 12.044 X 10
23
or 1.204 X
10
24

Homework Assignment # 10
Read p. 119-123.
As you read, complete exercises 1-6.
When you are done reading, answer
problems 23-36 on p. 146-147
Chapter 4: Calculations
and the Chemical Equation
Section 4.2: The Chemical
Formula, Formula Weight, and
Molar Mass
Chemical Formula
A combination of symbols of the various
elements that make up the compound.
Formula Unit
The smallest amount of atoms that
provides the following information
The identity of atoms in the compound
The relative numbers of each type of atom
Examples
Molecule vs ion pair
Covalent compounds form molecules, and
when calculating formula weight all of the
atoms in the compound are added
together.
Ion pairs (ionic compounds) form
crystalline structures. Its the smallest
group of ions that are listed in the formula
for these types of chemicals.
Formula weight vs Molecular
Weight
The sum of all of the atomic weights in the
compound in an ionic compound its the
formula weight. In a covalent compound
its the molecular weight.
Molar Mass
The mass of one mole of the compound or
the formula weight in grams.
Examples
Conversions using Formula Weight
Finding the number of moles
corresponding to a certain number of
grams.

Conversions using Formula Weight
Finding grams corresponding to a certain
number of moles.
Homework Assignment #11
Read p. 123-126.
On p. 147 Exercises 37-58
Chapter 4: Calculations
and the Chemical Equation
Section 3: The Chemical
Equation and the Information it
Conveys
Chemical equation
The shorthand notation for a chemical
reaction, where one substance changes
chemically into another substance.
An example: burning sugar
Reactants
The starting materials that undergo a
chemical change
Products
The ending materials that are produced by
a chemical reaction.
Additional information in a chemical
reaction
Physical state of the substance (solid,
liquid, or gas)
If the reaction occurs
Identifies the solvent, if there is one. (A
solvent is the solution the materials are
dissolved in, such as water.)
Experimental conditions such as heat,
light, or electrical energy added
Most importantly
The chemical equation identifies the
relative number of moles of reactants and
products.
According to the Law of
Conservation of Mass
Matter cannot be gained or lost in the
process of a chemical reaction
The total mass of the products must equal
the total mass of the reactants
The chemical equation must be balanced.
Features of a chemical reaction.
CaCO
3
(s)

CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)
Reactants
are on the
left of the
arrow.
The arrow
indicates the
reaction
occurs in one
direction.
The
products
are on the
right of the
arrow.
Features of a chemical reaction.
CaCO
3
(s)

CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)
s indicates
the chemical
is a solid
substance
g indicates
the
substance is
a gas
l
would
indicat
e the
substa
nce
were a
liquid.
Features of a chemical reaction.
CaCO
3
(s)

CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)
The indicates that energy was
necessary for the chemical reaction to
occur
Features of a chemical reaction.
CaCO
3
(s)

CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)
The main feature of a chemical equation is that it is
balanced, with the same number of elements in
compounds on both sides of the arrow.
The experimental basis of a
chemical equation
Evidence for a chemical reaction includes:

The release of a gas resulting in bubbles

The formation of a solid (precipitate) in solution

The production of heat resulting in an increase in
temperature

A change in color of a substance
The experimental basis of a
chemical equation
Sometimes instruments must be used to
measure subtle changes that indicate a
chemical reaction.

Heat or light absorbed or emitted

Changes in the way a sample behaves in an electrical
or magnetic field

Changes in electrical properties
Writing Chemical Reactions
Most reactions follow a few simple
patterns

Combination reactions

Decomposition reactions

Replacement reactions

Combination reactions
Involve the joining or combining of two or
more compounds
The general form of the reaction is
A + B AB

Combination reactions
Examples include:
Combination of a metal and non-metal to form a salt

Ca(s) + Cl
2
(g)

CaCl
2
(s)

Reaction of magnesium oxide and carbon dioxide to
produce magnesium carbonate

MgO(s) + CO
2
(g) MgCO
3
(s)

Decomposition Reactions
Reactions that produce two or more
products from a single reactant.
The general form for the reaction is
AB A + B
Decomposition reactions
Examples include
The removal of water from a hydrate (a substance
that has water molecules linked in its structure)

CuSO
4
5H
2
O(s) CuSO
4
(s) + 5H
2
O(g)

The heating of calcium carbonate to produce calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide gas

CaCO
3
(s) CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)
Replacement ReactionsSingle
Replacement
Single replacement reactions is where one
atom replaces another in the compound
The general formula is
A + BC AC + B
Replacement Reactions
Examples include

The replacement of copper by zinc in
copper sulfate forming zinc sulfate

Zn(s) + CuSO
4
(aq) Zn SO
4
(aq) + Cu(s)
Replacement ReactionsDouble
Replacement
Two compounds that switch atoms with
each other
The general formula is
AB + CD AD + CB
Replacement ReactionsDouble
Replacement
Examples include
The formation of salt and water with the
reaction of a base and an acid

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H
2
O(l) + NaCl(aq)
Types of Chemical Reactions
There are four main types of chemical
reactions
Precipitation reactions

Reactions with Oxygen

Acid-base reactions

Oxidation-reduction reactions
Precipitation reactions
A chemical change that produces an
insoluble product that will form a solid.
Usually the solid can be seen falling out
of the solution, hence, called precipitation.
At other times the solid makes the solution
turn from clear to cloudy.
Solubility predictions
Na, K, and ammonium compounds are generally soluble.

Nitrates and acetates are generally soluble

Chlorides, bromides, and iodides are generally soluble. However,
iodine compounds that contain lead, silver, and mercury are
insoluble.

Carbonates and phosphates are generally insoluble. Sodium,
potassium, and ammonium carbonates and phosphates are soluble.

Hydroxides and sulfides are generally insoluble. Sodium,
potassium, calcium, and ammonium compounds are however
soluble.
Reactions with oxygen
Many substances react with oxygen. If the
substance contains carbon, then carbon
dioxide is usually produced. If the
substance contains hydrogen, then water
is usually produced.
An example is iron turning to rust
4Fe(s) + 3O
2
(g) 2Fe
2
O
3
(s)
This number is called a coefficient, and indicates the
number of molecules or moles that reacts with the other
compounds.
Acid-base Reactions
This involves an acid combining with a
base to form a salt.
An example would be

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H
2
O(aq)

Oxidation Reduction Reactions
Involves the transfer of negative charge
from one reactant to another.
The reaction of zinc with copper would be
an example.

Zn(s) + Cu
2+
(aq) Zn
2+
(aq) + Cu (s)

These specific reactions will be discuss in
further detail at a later time.
Homework Assignment #12
p. 147 Answer questions 59-68
Read p. 126-136. Answer the exercises in
the reading that were not answered in
class as examples.
Chapter 4: Calculations
and the Chemical Equation
Section 4: Balancing Chemical
Equations
The chemical equation
Shows the molar quantity of reactants
needed to produce a certain molar
quantity of products.
since
The number of atoms in a molecule cannot
be changed (it would make an entirely
different compound)
coefficients
(whole numbers that show the numbers of
entire molecules) are used to balance a
chemical equation
For example, in the equation
CaCO
3
(s)

CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)

On the reactant side On the product side
1 mole Ca 1 mole Ca
1 mole C 1 mole C
3 moles of O 3 moles of O
Since there are the same numbers of each type of molecules
on both sides of the arrow, the equation is balanced.
HCl(aq) + Ca(s) CaCl
2
(s) + H
2
(g)

On the reactant side On the product side
1 mole H 2 mole H
1 mole Cl 2 moles Cl
1 mole Ca 1 mole Ca
Since there are not the same number of moles on both
sides of this equation, the equation is not balanced.
HCl(aq) + Ca(s) CaCl
2
(s) + H
2
(g)



2HCl(aq) + Ca(s) CaCl
2
(s) + H
2
(g)
To balance the equation, place a
coefficient of 2 in front of the HCl.
Steps to balancing a chemical
equation
Step 1: Count the number of moles of
atoms of each element on both product
and reactant side
H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) H
2
O(l)
On the reactant
side:
2 moles of H
2 moles of O
On the product
side:
2 moles of H
1 mole of O
Steps to balancing a chemical
equation
Step 2: Determine which elements are not
balanced.
H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) H
2
O(l)
The oxygen atoms
are not balanced in
this equation.
Steps to balancing a chemical
equation
Step 3: Balance one element at a
time.
H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) H
2
O(l)
First: H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2H
2
O(l)
Then 2H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2H
2
O(l)


Steps to balancing a chemical
equation
Step 4: After you believe you have
successfully balanced the equation, check
to make sure you have the same number
of atoms on both sides of the equation.
2H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2H
2
O(l)
4 moles of H
2 moles of O
4 moles of H
2 moles of O
Homework Assignment #13
p. 147 Answer questions 69-84
Read p. 136-145. Answer the exercises in
the reading that were not answered in
class as examples.

Chapter 4: Calculations
and the Chemical Equation
Section 4.5: Calculations Using
the Chemical Equation
Calculations Using Chemical
Equations
Using the chemical formulas to calculate
amounts of materials needed or produced
can be done once you have a balanced
chemical equation.
In order to carry out
chemical calculations the
following guidelines must
be followed.
The chemical formulas of ALL the
products and reactants must be
known
The basis for the calculations is the
balanced chemical equation. Be
sure all of the equations are
balanced first.
The calculations are performed in
terms of moles.

Use of Conversion Factors--
conversion between moles and
grams.
Example: convert 10 moles of NaCl to grams

The formula mass of NaCl is the molecular
mass of Na + the molecular mass of Cl
(22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 grams per mole.

10 moles NaCl X 55.44 grams = 554.4 grams of NaCl
1 mole
Use of Conversion Factors--conversion
between moles and grams.
Example: How many moles of CaCl
2

would 23 grams contain?

The formula mass of CaCl
2
equals the
atomic mass of Ca and 2 X the atomic
mass of Cl (40.08 + 2(35.45) = 110.98)

23 grams X 1 mole = 0.207 moles
110.98 grams
Use of Conversion Factors
Conversion of moles of reactants
to moles of products.
Once you have a balanced
chemical equation, develop a
conversion factor of reactants to
products. After you have done that
you can:
Calculate reacting quantities
Calculate grams of product produced
Relate the mass of reactants and
products
Converting moles of reactants to
moles of product
2H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2H
2
O(l)

In this equation: 2 moles of H
2
will react with
1 mole of O
2
to produce 2 moles of H
2
O.
2H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2H
2
O(l)
To calculate the number of grams of
H
2
O produced by 1 mole of O
2

1. Convert from moles of O
2
to moles
of H
2
O





1 mole O
2
x 2 moles H
2
O
= 2 moles H
2
O produced

2. Convert the moles of H
2
O to grams of
H
2
O
2 moles X 18.016 grams =
1 mole
36.032 grams


Relating masses of reactants
and products
CaCO
3
(s)

CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)

How many grams of Ca0 will be produced
by 100.0 grams of CaCO
3
?

First, determine how many moles
will be produced.

CaCO
3
(s)

CaO(s) + CO
2
(g)
One mole of CaCO
3
will
produce one mole of
CaO
Next, determine how many grams
of each are in each mole of
substance.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
1 mole of
CaCO
3
has a
formula mass
of 100.09
grams
1 mole of
CaO has a
mass of
56.06 grams
0.9991 moles CaCO3 will produce 0.9991 moles CaO

0.9991 moles CaO X 56.06 grams = 56.00 grams
CaO
1 mole
100 grams CaCO
3
X 1 mole CaCO
3
= 0.9991 moles CaCO
3

100.09 grams CaCO
3

Theoretical and percent yield
If a chemical reaction occurs, in theory you
can calculate how much of the product is
created. This would be the maximum
amount that is produced. However, in the
real world often not all the possible
product are produced in a chemical
reaction.
Theoretical yield
The maximum amount of product that
could be produced determined by
calculations using the chemical equation.
Percent yield
The ratio of the actual and theoretical
yields determined by the formula

%yield = actual yield X 100%
Theoretical yield
Example:
2HCl(aq) + Ca(s) CaCl
2
(s) + H
2
(g)

Assume the theoretical yield of CaCl
2
in
this equation were 30 g. If the actual
yield of CaCl
2
were 25 g, calculate the
percentage yield.


%yield = actual yield X 100%
Theoretical yield


25 g X 100 = 83.3%
30g
Homework Assignment
p. 147-148 Exercises 85-104 (odd)