Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
A* gives C
F
as based on thermodynamics
It can be used to estimate the departure of an actual engine from it theoretical efficiency.
C
F
is always larger for vacuum (p
a
= 0) than for a finite ambient pressure.
C
F
is max for p
e
= p
a
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 151
26. ROCKET PERORMANCE THRUST COEFFICIENT
The thrust coefficient is a measure of the efficiency with which the nozzle extracts energy
from the hot gas
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 152
26. ROCKET PERORMANCE THRUST COEFFICIENT
Thrust coefficient as function of the
area ration A
e
/ A
t
= , shown for
different pressure expansion ratios
P
c
/ P
a
The maximum of C
F
is achieved for
a optimally adapted nozzle
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 153
26. ROCKET PERORMANCE - THRUST COEFFICIENT
Values of C
F
typically range from 1.6 to 2.0 for nozzles of practical length.
Thrust coefficient depends mostly on pressure distribution in thrust chamber.
The specific impulse of a rocket engine is the thrust of the engine divided by the
propellant flow rate.
Isp is measured in sec, therefore different propellant combinations can be compared
in different systems of measurement.
The thrust coefficient and specific impulse are interrelated. If a nozzle produces a
higher thrust by having a higher thrust coefficient for a particular flow rate and
chamber pressure, the specific impulse of the rocket engine will also be increased.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 154
27. ROCKET PERORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC VELOCIT
The characteristic velocity measures the efficiency of conversion of thermal energy in the
combustion chamber into high-velocity exhaust gas.
This is defined by the ratio of the product chamber pressure (p
c
) times throat Area (A*)
divided by mass flow (m).
It has the dimension of a velocity and is based on measurable quantities. The
thermodynamic form is given by
c* depends on the temperature and on the molecular weight and can be used to estimate
the performance of the engine design.
The next figure shows c* as a function of the combustion temperature and the molecular
weight of the exhaust gas.
The parameter is called combustion parameter.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 155
27. ROCKET PERORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC VELOCIT
A typical value for c* is 2.000 m/s. Lox/LH2 engines have a combustion parameter of 16,
while for solid propellants the value is about 10.
The graph confirms the former detection, high exhaust velocities are associated with high
temperatures and low molecular weight
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 156
27. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - CHARACTERISTIC VELOCITY
The characteristic velocity depends primarily on the combustion conditions, and is
therefore a relative measure of the efficiency of combustion.
The rocket specific impulse is given as a function of both c* and C
F
The equations depicted provide insight into the combustion process and losses of the
engine upstream of the throat.
If combustion is efficient, the engine will have a high c*.
A loss in thrust coefficient causes a direct loss in thrust and Isp.
Losses of Isp, due to deviation from ideal performance, can be broken down into
losses of the fundamental combustion process upstream of the throat (c* losses) and
losses in the expansion of the combustion products through the nozzle (CF losses).
If there are losses upstream of the throat due to inefficient combustion:
- it gives a reduced combustion temperature which results in a reduction of c*.
- loss of c* results in a reduced chamber pressure for a given mass flow through.
- a reduced c* gives a smaller thrust and a reduced c* reduces Isp.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 157
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
In thermodynamic expansion, we heat the propellant to turn it into a high pressure,
high temperature gas. All chemical systems use this method.
We allow that gas to expand in a controlled way to turn the thermal potential energy
into directed kinetic energy, which finally produces thrust.
The rocket engine using thermodynamic expansion creates a pressure difference
between the thrust chamber (combustion chamber) and the surrounding environment.
It is this pressure difference that accelerates the gases.
A rocket engine usually operates at what the gas dynamist calls supercritical
conditions (i.e. when the flow velocity is larger than the wave velocity). It means, high
chamber pressure exhausting to low external pressure.
De Laval showed that for supercritical conditions gases should be ducted through a
nozzle that converges to a throat (section of smallest area) and then diverges to
transform as much of the gases thermal energy into kinetic energy.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 158
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
The function of the nozzle is to convert the chemical-thermal energy generated in the
combustion chamber into kinetic energy. The nozzle converts the slow moving, high
pressure, high temperature gas in the combustion chamber into high velocity gas of
lower pressure and temperature.
Nozzles consist of a convergent and divergent section.
The minimum flow area between the convergent and
divergent section is called the nozzle throat. The flow
area at the end of the divergent section is called the
nozzle exit area.
Also called convergent-divergent or CD nozzle.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 159
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
In the subsonic region (flow velocities less than Mach 1),
the gases are accelerated by decreasing the area of the
flow passage. Continuing the decrease of the flow area
increases the gas velocity until a point is reached at which
the maximum mass flow rate per unit area is achieved. At
this condition, the flow is at the speed of sound or sonic
(Mach number equal to 1). This location is called the
throat of the nozzle, and the flow is referred to as
choked. The ratio of chamber pressure to pressure at
the throat (critical pressure ratio) is approximately 2:1 for
this condition.
From that point on, the flow passage must increase in
area to permit continuing acceleration of the flow in the
supersonic regime (Mach numbers greater than 1).
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 160
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Once the nozzle achieves the choked condition, the
chamber pressure remains constant regardless of the
back-pressure from the flight altitude. If the exit pressure
exceeds the local ambient, it is underexpanded; if it is less
than the local ambient, it is overexpanded.
Selection of the nozzle area/pressure ratio is a
compromise to provide the best performance across the
vehicles flight regime. One way to examine this design
choice is through the nozzle thrust coefficient Cf. The
thrust coefficient is a measure of nozzle performance and
can be used to determine the thrust of a rocket engine as
a function of the throat area and the chamber pressure.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 161
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
For conventional bell nozzles, loss mechanisms fall into three categories:
(1) geometric or divergence loss,
(2) viscous drag loss, and
(3) chemical kinetics loss.
Geometric loss results when a portion of the nozzle exit flow is directed away from the
nozzle axis, resulting in a radial component of momentum. In an ideal nozzle, the exit
flow is completely parallel to the nozzle axis and possesses uniform pressure and Mach
number.
A drag force, produced at the nozzle wall by the effects of a viscous high-speed flow,
acts opposite to the direction of thrust, and therefore results in a decrease in nozzle
efficiency.
The third nozzle loss mechanism is due to finite-rate chemical kinetics. Ideally, the
engine exhaust gas reaches chemical equilibrium at any point in the nozzle flow field,
instantaneously adjusting to each new temperature and pressure condition. In real
terms, however, the rapidly accelerating nozzle flow does not permit time for the gas
to reach full chemical equilibrium.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 162
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Experience tells the nozzle designer that a long nozzle is needed to maximize the
geometric efficiency; but at the same time, nozzle drag is reduced if the nozzle is
shortened. If chemical kinetics are an issue, then the acceleration of exhaust gases at
the nozzle throat should be slowed by increasing the radius of curvature applied to the
design of the throat region. The optimum nozzle contour is a design compromise that
results in a maximum overall nozzle efficiency.
With typical values:
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 163
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
If sufficient pressure is provided to the nozzle (about 2.5-
3x above ambient pressure) the nozzle chokes and a
supersonic jet is formed, dramatically accelerating the gas,
converting most of the thermal energy into kinetic energy.
The exhaust speeds vary, depending on the expansion
ratio the nozzle is designed to give, but exhaust speeds as
high as ten times the speed of sound of sea level air speed
are not uncommon.
Rocket thrust is caused by pressures acting in the
combustion chamber and nozzle. About half of the rocket
engine's thrust comes from the unbalanced pressures
inside the combustion chamber and the rest comes from
the pressures acting against the inside of the nozzle. As
the gas expands (adiabatically) the pressure against the
nozzle's walls forces the rocket engine in one direction
while accelerating the gas in the other.
M > 1
M < 1
M = 1
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 164
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
The radial velocity components cancel and dont contribute to the overall thrust,
therefore the energy going into the radial velocity is wasted.
The nozzle is usually made long enough (or the exit area is great enough) such that the
pressure in the combustion chamber is reduced at the nozzle exit to the pressure
existing outside the nozzle.
There are a number of nozzle expansion types:
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 165
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Nozzle exit velocity:
The term g is the ratio of specific heats of the hot gases, R is the universal gas
constant, and M is the molecular weight of the gases that exit the nozzle. Optimum
expansion of the gases occurs when the exit pressure of the nozzle equals the local
ambient pressure.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 166
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
The conical nozzle is simple and easy to fabricate and provides adequate performance
for most applications. However, it also has off axis exhaust velocity components (2d, 3d
losses) which reduces the efficiency.
The contoured or bell-shaped nozzle provides for rapid early expansion producing
shorter (less massive) nozzles, and redirects the exhaust toward the axial direction
near the nozzle exit.
The plug and expansion-deflection type nozzles are much shorter than a conventional
conical nozzle with the same expansion ratio.
The plug changes the direction of the gas flow from the throat during expansion from
radial to an axial direction. The expansion of exhaust gas is determined by ambient
pressure.
A variation of the plug nozzle is the aerospike, which uses radial auxiliary combustion
chambers around the exit to the main combustion chamber. The contoured or bell-
shaped nozzle provides for rapid early expansion producing shorter (less massive)
nozzles, and redirects the exhaust toward the axial direction near the nozzle exit.
The plug and expansion-deflection type nozzles are much shorter than a conventional
conical nozzle with the same expansion ratio.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 167
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
The plug changes the direction of the gas flow from the throat during expansion from
radial to an axial direction. The expansion of exhaust gas is determined by ambient
pressure.
A variation of the plug nozzle is the aerospike, which uses radial auxiliary combustion
chambers around the exit to the main combustion chamber.
The plug changes the direction of the gas flow from the throat during expansion from
radial to an axial direction. The expansion of exhaust gas is determined by ambient
pressure.
A variation of the plug nozzle is the aerospike, which uses radial auxiliary combustion
chambers around the exit to the main combustion chamber.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 168
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Expansion differs three cases:
Pe: Pressure at nozzle exit; Pa: Ambient pressure
The behavior of this expansion process is largely dictated by pressure - both the
pressure of the exhaust itself as well as the pressure of the external environment into
which the gas is exhausted.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 169
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Pe = Pa: Perfect Expansion
The flow in this case is perfectly expanded inside the nozzle and maximizes thrust.
Unfortunately, this situation can only occur at one specific atmospheric pressure on a
fixed-geometry nozzle. Nozzle designers typically must select a shape that is optimum
at only one altitude but minimizes the losses that occur at lower or higher altitudes.
Pe < Pa: Overexpansion
When a nozzle is too large and keeps trying to expand the gas flow, at some point the
rocket plume will separate from the wall inside the nozzle. This is called an over-
expanded nozzle. Performance from an over-expanded nozzle is worse than in the
under-expanded case because the nozzle's large exit area results in extra drag. When
an overexpanded flow passes through a nozzle, the higher atmospheric pressure
causes it to squeeze back inward and separate from the walls of the nozzle. This
"pinching" of the flow reduces efficiency because that extra nozzle wall is wasted and
does nothing to generate any additional thrust. Ideally, the nozzle should have been
shorter to eliminate this unnecessary wall.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 170
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Experimental photos of shock diamond patterns in an overexpanded (pe<pa) flow
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 171
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
Overexpanded nozzle flow
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 172
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Pe > Pa: Underexpansion
When a nozzle ends before the gas reaches the pressure of the outside air, it is called
an under-expanded nozzle. The exit area is too small for an optimum area ratio. In the
under-expanded case the rocket design is not getting all the thrust that it can from the
engine.
The atmospheric pressure is lower than the exit pressure, is called underexpanded. In
this case, the flow continues to expand outward after it has exited the nozzle. This
behavior also reduces efficiency because that external expansion does not exert any
force on the nozzle wall. This energy can therefore not be converted into thrust and is
lost. Ideally, the nozzle should have been longer to capture this expansion and convert
it into thrust.
In vacuum, every nozzle works in underexpansion conditions since it is impossible to
provide zero pressure at the nozzle exit. For that, the nozzle expansion should have
infinite length and with.
However, it makes no sense to increase very much the size of the nozzle since the gain
of efficiency would be cancelled by grow of the nozzle size and weight.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 173
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
Underexpanded nozzle flow
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 174
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
Underexpanded Perfectly Overexpanded
Pe < pa pe pa pe > pa
Overexpanded flowpe > pa
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 175
29. ROCKET PERORMANCE COMPUTING
Having defined the thrust coefficient (CF) and the characteristic velocity (C*), they can
then be used to compute the behavior of specific motor designs.
Summary of the equations needed (they are interlinked):
The last relationship is derived from the previous two and shows the real importance of C
F
and c*. Together with the mass flow rate they define the thrust.
The product of C
F
and c* gives the effective exhaust velocity V
e,
the parameter used to
define rocket performance.
The effective exhaust velocity, defined in in terms of thermodynamics and in terms of
parameters measured in the engine. Combustion chamber pressure (p
c
), mass flow rate
(m), the throat area (A*) and the measured thrust (F
R
) are combined to determine the
effective exhaust velocity. These values can be inserted in the rocket equation.
These three equations combined with the rocket equation are extremely useful in
calculating the rocket engine performance.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 176
30. ROCKET PERORMANCE SPECIFIC IMPULSE
The specific impulse is a measure of propellant efficiency, and numerically is the thrust
produced divided by the weight of propellant consumed per second.
The unit of Isp is sec or m/sec.
Specific impulse indicates how many kilograms of thrust are obtained by the
consumption of one kilogram of propellant in one second.
Specific impulse is characteristic of the type of propellant, however, its exact value will
vary to some extent with the operating conditions and design of the rocket engine.
The larger the value of specific impulse, the better a rockets performance.
We can improve specific impulse by imparting more energy to the propellants
(increasing the exhaust velocity), which means that more thrust will be obtained for
each kilogram of propellant consumed.
We can think of it as the amount of thrust one kilogram of propellant will produce for
one second.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 177
30. ROCKET PERORMANCE SPECIFIC IMPULSE
The meaning of Isp can be compared with the fuel consumption of automobiles
within a particular distance, e.g. liter per 100 km.
The rocket equation doesn't include the thrust of the engine. That means, two rockets
with identical mass ratios and specific impulses would achieve identical velocities in
vacuum independently of their thrust (since their characteristic velocities are equal).
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 178
30. ROCKET PERORMANCE SPECIFIC IMPULSE
In rocket engineering the exhaust velocity is almost universally quoted in terms of the
specific impulse which is normally expressed in seconds.
The equation relating specific impulse to exhaust velocity is
where g is the acceleration of gravity.
Multiplied by g (or roughly 10) gives the Isp in m/s.
There are three reasons for the usage.
- Historical
- Measured in seconds is universal in all systems (metric and S.I.).
- Same units in which the acceleration of gravity is quoted.
Impulse is the effect of a force applied for a very short time to an object: I = F dt
; m: mass flow rate in kg/s
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 179
30. ROCKET PERORMANCE SPECIFIC IMPULSE
Isp can be considered as a measure of the fuel efficiency of the rocket, i.e. the momentum
imparted to the rocket per kilogram of propellant expelled.
If the exhaust velocity is high then the propellant efficiency is high
Isp is proportional to exhaust velocity and a direct measure of the propellant efficiency.
Some already discussed equations expressed with Isp:
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 180
30. ROCKET PERFORMANCE SPECIFIC IMPULSE
C* C
F
*
Isp
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 181
30. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - SPECIFIC IMPULSE
Variations of the chamber have only a
minor influence, i.e. an increase by a
factor of six gives a marginal (ca. 0,1%)
performance increase.
More significant is the influence of the
area ratio as the diagram shows.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 182
30. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - SPECIFIC IMPULSE
Propulsion performance
expressed in Isp of different
flight propulsion systems.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 183
31. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - Typical Parameter Values
Typical values of characteristics properties of rocket engines
Tc
[K]
Pc
[bar]
M
[kmol/kg]
C*
[m/s]
[-]
K
[-]
CF
[-]
Isp
[s]
2000-3900 100-260 2-30 900-2500 15-280 1,1-1,6 1,3-2,9 150-480
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 184
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
A payload of 6.4 tones is to be injected from a circular low Earth orbit into an hyperbolic
escape orbit with residual velocity relative to Earth of 2 km/s. Calculate the required
Delta- V if the circular velocity is 7.6 km/s.
Two upper-stage engines are under consideration. One uses storable propellants
nitrogen tetroxide and mono-methyl hydrazine, and the other uses liquid oxygen and
liquid hydrogen.
Assuming the data given below, calculate, for the above maneuver, and/or each engine
(a) The mass of propellant required
(b) The actual mass of the propellant tank-assume a single spherical tank containing both
propellants at the mean density, and an areal density of 10 kg/m2 for the tank wall.
(c) The thrust.
(d) The burn time.
Does the use of the cryogenic propellants justify the extra complication compared with storable
propellants?
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 185
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
Engine 1 Engine 2
Storable propellants: Cryogenic propellants:
Thrust coefficient of the nozzle: C
F
= 1.9 C
F
= 1.9
Characteristic velocity: c* = 1.731 km/s c* = 2.386 km/s
Mean density of the propellant: = 1200 kg/m3 = 320 kg/m3
Throat area: A* = 10-2 m2 A* = 10-2 m2
Chamber pressure: Pc = 1.1 X 106 Pascal Pc = 6 X 106 Pascal
1. The residual velocity on escape is given by kinetic energy assumption as
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
2
esc
2
i
2
mv
2
1
mv
2
1
mv
2
1
= =
circ
v x 2
esc
v =
2
7,6 x 2
2
2
2
i
v + =
s km 3,33 7,6 10,93 V = =
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006
Page 186
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
Engine 1:
1. Using the rocket equation
2. Mass of the tank
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
- = A
p
M
p
M
f
M
e
log
e
v V
(5)
|
.
|
\
| A
= 1 - e x
p
M
v v
f
M
(6)
s m 304 . 3 1,9 x 1731
F
C x c
e
V = =
-
=
(7)
11,13t 1,74 x 6,4 1
304 , 3 33 . 3
e 4 , 6
f
M = = - = |
.
|
\
|
(8)
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
3
m 275 , 9
3
10 x 20 , 1
3
10 x 11,13
Volume = =
(9)
3
m 2,214
3
m 275 , 9
4
3
3
r = -
t
=
(10)
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006
Page 187
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
- Tank radius r = 1,30 m
- Area of tank wall = 4 x 1,30
2
= 21,35 m
2
- Mass of tank = 21,35 x 10 = 213,5 kg; where the areal density of the tank walls is 10 kg/m
2
3. Thrust:
(11) F = P
c
A* C
F
= 1,1 10
6
10
-2
1,9 = 20,9 kN
4. Burn time:
(12) F = m c* C
F
Engine 2
The same equations applied to engine 2 delivers:
V
e
= 4.533 m/s
M
f
= 6,942 t
kg 6,33
3304
3
10 x 20,9
m = =
(13)
s 1.758
33 , 6
3
10 x 11,13
t = = (14)
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006
Page 188
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
Tank volume = 21,69 m
3
r = 1,73 m
Area = 37,61 m
2
Mass = 376,1 kg
F = 114 kN
m = 25,14 kg/s
t = 276 s
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006
Page 189
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
Comparison:
- The use of the high-energy cryogenic combination gives a significantly reduced
propellant requirement by 11,13 6,94 = 4 tons. This saving can be transferred to
payload.
- The low density of the hydrogen and oxygen requires a heavier tank, 376 kg vs 213 kg.
- This is more than offset by the reduced propellant mass.
- The higher chamber pressure in the cryogenic engine gives a higher thrust and a
shorter burn time.
Conclusion: The cryogenic propellant gives a much better performance overall.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 190
33. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - MASS RATIOS
Since the rocket engine is continually consuming propellants, the rockets mass is
decreasing with time.
If the thrust remains constant, the vehicles acceleration increases reaching its highest
value at engine cut-off; for example, the space shuttle reaches 3 Gs just before
main engine cut-off.
The purpose of a rocket is to place a payload at specified position with a specific
velocity. This position and velocity depends on the mission.
The more propellant the vehicle can carry with respect to its dry weight, or weight
without propellant aboard, the faster it will be able to go.
Mass ratio is an expression relating the propellant mass to vehicle mass; the higher the
mass ratio, the higher the final speed of the rocket.
Therefore, a rocket vehicle is made to weigh as little as possible in its dry state.
Increasing the weight of the vehicle payload results in decreasing the mass ratio, and
therefore cutting down the maximum altitude or range.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 191
33. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - MASS RATIOS
Mb = Mpl + Ms:
If rocket consumes all its propellant during firing, burnout mass (Mb) consists of
structure (Ms) and payload (Mpl). Mb is also called dry mass since the mass considered
is without any propellant.
M0 = Ms + Mpr + Mpl = Mb + Mpr:
The total mass (M0) is the mass at the beginning of the burn phase (t = 0) and is equal
to the sum of the mass of the payload (Mpl), propellant (Mpr) and structure (Ms).
Mr = M0 / Mb = (Ms + Mpr + Mpl) / (Ms + Mpl) or Mr = 1 + Mpr / Mb:
Mass ratio (Mr) is total mass (t = 0) divided by the mass at the end of a burn phase.
= Mpl / (Mpr + Ms):
Payload ratio () is mass of the payload (Mpl) divided by the mass of the propellant
(Mpr) and the structure (Ms). It is the fraction that the payload makes up in the mass
of the fuelled stage without the payload. It is wanted to be a large number. It means a
large payload can be launched with a small amount of propellant.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 192
33. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - MASS RATIOS
= Mpr / (Mpr + Ms)
Propellant ratio () is given by propellant mass (Mpr) divided by the mass of propellant
(Mpr) plus structure (Ms). This ratio determines the portion that the propellant makes
up in the total initial mass.
= Ms / (Mpr + Ms) or 1 + Ms/Mpr:
Structural coefficient () is the mass of the structure (Ms) divided by the mass of the
structure (Ms) plus propellant (Mpr). This parameter is independent of the payload
that is launches and is a measure of the efficiency of the booster design. A small value
of this coefficient indicates a good design. It means, more payload can be taken for the
same Mr
Mr = (1 + ) / ( + ).
Mass ratio (Mr) is a function of payload ratio and structural coefficient. From this
formula it is seen the importance to reduce . It is seen also that it is impossible to use
high values of , since they would mean a useless Mr ~ 1.
Typical values of Mr can range from 60% for some tactical missiles to less than 10% for
some unmanned launch vehicle stages.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 193
33. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - MASS RATIOS
Symbol Ratio Description
Mr
Mr = 1 + Mpr / Mb
or
Mr = (1 + ) / ( + )
Mass ration: Initial mass divided by mass at
the end of the thrust period. Want this ratio
large.
= Mpl / (Mpr + Ms)
Payload ratio: Ratio of payload to dry mass.
Want this large.
= 1 + Ms/Mpr
Structural coefficient: Ratio of structure to
the sum of payload structure. Want this
small.
= Mpr / (Mpr + Ms)
or
= 1 -
Propellant ratio: Ratio of propellant to the
sum of propellant plus structure. A high
value is desirable.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 194
33. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - MASS RATIOS
Every kg of additional structural mass takes one kg from the mass of payload, since the
structure of the stage is accelerated to the same velocity as the payload.
Generally, strongly depends on the density of the propellant, since more dense
propellants need smaller tanks. For example, the 1st stage (Lox/Kerosene) of the
Saturn V rocket 0,02.
This is why low density (~ 0,28 kg/m3) is one of the highest disadvantages of Lox/LH2
propellant, since large tanks are needed.
Solid fuel motors need thick casings, so in spite of the high density of the propellant,
their structure coefficients are large as well. For example, for the Shuttle solid rocket
boosters 0,14.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 195
34. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO
The thrust-to-weight ratio of a rocket, or rocket-propelled vehicle, is an indicator of its
acceleration expressed in multiples of gravitational acceleration g.
It is important to note that the thrust-to-weight ratio for a rocket varies as the
propellant gets utilized.
If the thrust is constant, then the maximum ratio (maximum acceleration of the
vehicle) is achieved just before the propellant is fully consumed (propellant weight is
practically zero at this point). So for each rocket there a characteristic thrust-to-weight
curve or acceleration curve.
The thrust to weight ratio of rockets is typically far higher than that of airbreathing jet
engines, e.g.
- Eurofighter: F/W = 1,25; Space Shuttle: F/W = 1,5
However, it is wrong to think that there is sense to increase the T/W ratio to very high
values. If it is high, the velocity of the rocket raises too quickly and aerodynamic forces
proportional to the velocity square) also.
Consequently, loads to the structure would also increase.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 196
34. ROCKET PERFORMANCETHRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO
These aerodynamic forces also decelerate the rocket by the so-called drag losses.
A further reason why extreme T/W rations should be avoided is the rocket mass
reduction during flight (propellant burns). Since the thrust remains more or less
constant (it slightly raises as the rocket leaves the dense atmospheric layers), the total
acceleration of the rocket increases. This means the raise of the g-forces. The forces
the rocket experiences due to acceleration.
G-forces = (a g) / g0; a is net acceleration of the rocket, g local gravitational
acceleration and g0 = 9,80665 m/s2 as standard acceleration.
G-force is equal F / M(t); F = thrust; M(t) = instantaneous mass.
At burnout, the mass of the rocket decreases several times (propellant is several times
heavier than the empty stage and next stages with payload). The increasing g-force
may destroy the rocket. The construction needs to be stronger and heavier to bear
additional g-loads.
G-force is the second reason why very high T/W rations are generally not used.
Common values for the T/W ratios are 1,3 1,8 at lift-off.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 197
34. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO
Rocket vehicle thrust-to-weight
ratio vs Isp for different
propellant technologies.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 198
34. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO
Engine
Thrust
(kN)
Weight
(Kg)
Thrust/
Weight
Hydrogen
HM 7B 64.0 155 41.3 Ja
RL-10C 255.7 317 49.1 Ja
RL-50 290 500 58 Ja
Vulcain 2 1350 1800 75.0 Ja
SSME 2278 3177 73.1 Ja
S5.98M 19.62 98 20.6 Nein
AJ-10 118K 43.44 95 44.3 Nein
RD-124 294.3 480 61.3 Nein
LR-91.1 467 589 79.2 Nein
RD-120 833 1125 74.0 Nein
RD-180 4152 5393 76.9 Nein
RD-171 7903 9500 83.1 Nein
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 199
10.
ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 200
1. MULTI-STAGING
1. Schmidlap, Johann (16th century)
German fireworks maker and perhaps the first, in 1591, to experiment with staging a
technique for lifting fireworks (and rockets in general) to higher altitudes. A larger sky rocket
(first stage) carried a smaller sky rocket (second stage). When the larger rocket burned out,
the smaller one continued to a higher altitude before showering the sky with glowing cinders.
Although Schmidlap appears to have been the first to fly staged rockets, priority for the idea
may go to Conrad.
2. Haas, Conrad (c.15091579)
Austrian artillery officer who may have been the first to describe the principle of the
multistage rocket. The evidence comes from a 450-page manuscript in the national archive of
Sibiu, Romania (formerly Hermannstadt), dealing with problems of artillery and ballistics, the
third part of which was written by Haas. Between 1529 and 1569 he wrote the above work
which describes and depicts rockets with two and three stages, stabilizing fins, and the use
liquid fuel.
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 201
2. MULTI-STAGING
The mass ratio of a rocket cannot exceed the value 1/, even if there is no payload
onboard.
In practice, it is more efficient to launch rockets in stages, where part of the rocket
structure drops away when it is no longer needed, thus decreasing the amount of mass
that needs to be placed in orbit.
The mass ration R is limited by the available technology. There is a upper limit, i.e.
the mass of the structure (Ms) is about 6-10 % of the propellant mass (Mpr).
Also Veff has limits which is for chemical propellants ca. 4.500 sec.
Dry Mass Ration = Dry Mass at burnout / Total (Initial) Mass
Launcher Stage Fuel Dry mass
(ton)
Propellant
mass (ton)
Total mass
(ton)
Dry mass
ration
Saturn V S-II (2nd) Lox/LH2 38 427 465 8,2%
Ariane 5 H155 Lox/LH2 12,6 156,2 168,8 7,5%
HII Stage 1 Lox/LH2 11,9 86,2 98,1 12,1%
Ariane 4 H10 (3rd) Lox/LH2 1,2 10,8 12 10%
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 202
3. MULTI-STAGING
Dry Mass Ration = Dry Mass at burnout / Total (Initial) Mass
Launcher Stage Fuel Dry mass
(ton)
Propellant
mass (ton)
Total mass
(ton)
Dry mass
ration
Saturn V S-1C /1st) Lox/Kero 130 1996 -- 6,1%
Zenit 1st stage Lox/Kero 28,08 318,8 -- 8,1%
Soyuz 2nd stage Lox/Kero 2,4 23 -- 9,4
PSLAV 2nd stage Lox/Kero 5,3 37 -- 12,5
Dry Mass Ration = Dry Mass at burnout / Total (Initial) Mass
Launcher Stage Fuel Dry mass
(ton)
Propellant
mass (ton)
Total mass
(ton)
Dry mass
ration
Ariane 4 L220 Storable 17,515 227,1 7,7%
Ariane 5 1st stage Storable 9 142 -- 6,3%
Long March CZ-3 Storable 2,4 23 -- 9,4
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 203
4. MULTI-STAGING
The mass ratio R depends on a number of factors, e.g.:
- Amount of acceleration (high for military rockets, low/moderate for civil launchers)
- State of lightweight design
- Design quality
- 0,06 is close to the feasible minimum
Therefore, it is today not possible to orbit an essential payload with a single-stager
V of a single launcher is limited to 9 km/sec, with Veff = 4.500 m/s.
Therefore, launchers have to be staged.
For two-stage launcher:
By doing so, V1 of a two-stager < V2 of a single stager.
However, Vges of a two-stager is higher than V of a single-stager.
It is the mass of the rocket structure what impede to the rocket to achieve higher final
velocities.
By jettisoning part that have become unusable we reduce the useless weight.
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
- = A + A = A
1 b
02
1 b
01
1 eff ges
M
M
ln
M
M
ln V 2 V 1 V V
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 204
5. MULTI-STAGING
Discarded are the tanks since tanks make up most of the mass of a rocket. During flight
the amount of propellant reduces and tanks became nearly empty.
Engines for the second part of the flight work mostly in vacuum and may be designed
for more effective work than the engines working within the atmosphere. Vacuum
engine have higher expansion ratios of the nozzle.
The rocket may divided into stages (two or more) which work in sequence or
simultaneously and are discarded after the propellant inside their tanks is deplete,
leaving the remaining rocket on a sub-orbital trajectory.
Each stage is actually a standalone rocket.
Each stage may have its one tanks engines.
Only the upper stage makes it to orbit together the payload.
Sometimes, the payload has its own engine and propellant (being an independent
rocket stage). The upper stage may even leave the payload on a sub-orbital trajectory,
and the final orbital injection is performed by the engine of the payload. This is often
done to additionally increase the mass of the payload and to avoid pollution of the
space by debris.
Rockets composed of several stages are called multistage rockets.
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 205
6. MULTI-STAGING
Example:
- One-stage rocket of total mass 100 tons
- Payload is 2 tons
- Exhaust velocity Veff = 3.200 m/sec
- Structure coefficient be = 0,08
- Mass of the rocket without payload is 100 2 = 98 tons
- From which 98 x 0,08 = 7,8 tons is the structure and 98 -7,8 = 90,2 tons is the fuel.
- The mass ratio of this rocket is R 100 / 7,8 +2) = 10,2.
- The final velocity V 3.200 m/sec x ln (10,2) 7.400 m/sec
Such a rocket will never make it to orbit since a characteristic velocity of 9.600 m/sec is
necessary to launch a satellite to LEO.
Now the rocket is divided into two stages working in sequence. The data of the second
stage are:
- total mass with the payload Mt2 = 30 tons and first stage having the total mass of Mt1
= 70 tons.
- Structural coefficients are 1 = 2 = 0,08 and Veff1 = 3.200 m/sec, Veff2 = 3.400 m/sec
- Veff2 is higher due to the larger expansion ratio
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 206
7. MULTI-STAGING
For the first stage we get:
- Mp1 = 30 tons, Ms1 = 70 x 0,08 = 5,6 tons
- R1 100 / (30 + 5,6) = 2,8
- v1 3.200 x ln(2,8) 3.300 m/sec
For the second stage we get:
- Mp2 = 2 tons
- Ms2 = (30 2) x 0,08 = 2,2 tons
- R2 30 / (2 + 2,2) = 7,1
- V2 3.400 x ln(7,1) 6.700 m/sec
The total final velocity of the rocket will be
Vges = V1 + V2 10.000 m/sec
The payload can be delivered to the orbit
Extra stage give the velocity gain of more than 2,5 km/sec
The total mass ratio decreases to 100 / 2 + 2,2) 23,8
If the rocket is divided in three stages of masses 10, 20, 70 tons with analogical
calculations (Veff1 = 3.200 m/sec, Veff2 = Veff3 = 3.400 m/sec), the final velocity Vges =
10.900 m/sec. So, 900 m/sec have been gained and the total mass ratio is 35,7.
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 207
8. MULTI-STAGING
The table illustrates the masses which a rocket with a launch mass Mt = 100 tons and
identical Veff = 3.200 m/sec and = 0,06 for stages may deliver to LEO with V
orbit
=
9.600 sec
It is shown that the 4th and higher stages give nearly no gain in the payload mass.
The optimal number of stages depends on many parameters
If the structure ratios are equal for all stages as well as the exhaust velocities, the
following approximation can be used in a wide range of (0 < < 0,4)
Number
of stages
1 2 3 4 5 6
Payload
(tons)
- 2,8 3,4 3,6 3,7 3,7
N
opt
-
Vorbit
Veff x ln (0,366 + 0,54 x
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 208
9. MULTI-STAGING
This number should be rounded down to increase reliability and to decrease costs. The
optimum number N for different limiting characteristic velocities Vchar (= orbit
velocity) of the mission is tabulated below ( 0,06).
For Vchar < 1,4 x Veff, there is no sense to build a multistage rocket. For Lox/Kerosene
or hypergolic propellants that mean Vchar < 4,6 km/sec. This is the reason why lunar
landings and ascents form the lunar surface to the lunar orbit or the earth are
performed in on stage.
However, a lunar soft landing and a successive launch to the earth need delta-v > 4,6
km/s and are performed on two stages.
Vchar/Veff 1,4 2,3 3,2 4,1 5,1 6,0 6,9
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 209
10. MULTI MULTI-STAGING
1
3
2
M
pl
Total Mass 1: M
o,1
=M
Pr,1
+M
S,1
+M
o,2
Total Mass 2: M
o,2
=M
Pr,2
+M
S,2
+M
o,3
Total Mass 3: M
o,3
=M
Pr,3
+M
S,3
+M
pl
Total Mass i: M
o,i
=M
Pr,i
+M
S,i
+M
o,(i+1)
M
0
= total mass at t = 0
M
Pr
= Mass of propellant
M
S
= Mass of structure
M
Pl
= Mass of payload
M
b
= Mass at burnout
M
R
= Mass ratio
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 210
11. MULTI -STAGING
1
3
2
M
pl
Total Mass 1: M
0,1
=M
pr,1
+M
s,1
+M
0,2
Payload for Stage 1: M
pl,1
= M
0,2
Total Mass 2: M
0,2
= M
P,2
+ M
S,2
+ M
0,3
Payload for Stage 2: M
pl,2
= M
0,3
Total Mass 3: M
o3
= M
P3
+ M
S3
+ M
pl
Payload for Stage 3: M
pl,3
= M
pl
Total Mass i: M
0,i
= M
pr,i
+ M
s,i
+ M
0,(i+1)
Payload for Stage i: M
pl,i
= M
0,(i+1)
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 211
12. MULTI -STAGING
The figure shows the general acceleration
and velocity profiles during powered flight.
The acceleration and velocity are low at
launch due to the small net force and high
vehicle mass at that time.
Both acceleration and velocity increase
rapidly as the engine burns propellants
(reducing vehicle mass and increasing the net
force).
At first stage burnout, the acceleration drops
and is generally opposite the direction of
motion.
With the second stage ignition, acceleration
and velocity will increase again.
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 212
13. MULTI -STAGING
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 213
14. MULTI -STAGING
P
a
y
l
o
a
d
R
a
t
i
o
There is very little
advantage to using
more than about
three stages.
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 214
X.
LIQUID PROPULSION
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 215
1. CHEMICAL ROCKETS
The attainable kinetic energy per unit mass of propellant is limited primarily by the
energy released in chemical reactions between fuel and oxidizer.
The attainment of high exhaust velocity requires the use of high-energy propellant
combinations that produce low molecular weight exhaust products.
Currently, propellants with the best combinations of high energy content and low
molecular weight seem capable of producing specific impulses in the range of 400 to
500 seconds.
The rapid combination (combustion) of certain chemicals results in the release of
energy and large volumes of gaseous products.
In ordinary chemical rocket engines, the temperature of the resulting gases can rise
higher than 3.300 K.
Liquid propellants provide higher specific impulses than solid propellants.
Liquid Hydrogen (LH) and liquid Oxygen (LOX) are high energy propellants because of
the large energy release during combustion and the high transfer of thermal energy
into directed kinetic energy of the exhaust stream.
An efficient LH/LOX burning engine produces around Isp = 390-430 sec on average
(depends on its design altitude); SSME: 363,2 @ S.L., 455,2 @ vacuum. Solid propellant
motors produce around Isp = 265-295 sec.
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 216
2. PRESSURE-FED CYCLE (PFC) CHARACTERISTICS
Simplest
Low thrust, low chamber pressure
High pressure propellant tanks require thicker walls
Upper stages, space maneuvers
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 217
2. PRESSURE-FED CYCLE (PFC) CHARACTERISTICS
Pressure-Fed Cycle:
The simplest system, the pressure-fed cycle, does
not have pumps or turbines but instead relies on
tank pressure to feed the propellants into the
main chamber. In practice, the cycle is limited to
relatively low chamber pressures because higher
pressures make the vehicle tanks too heavy. The
cycle can be reliable, given its reduced part count
and complexity compared with other systems.
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 218
2. PRESSURE-FED CYCLE (PFC) CHARACTERISTICS
Aestus
Ariane 5 Upper Stage
With Aestus Engine
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 219
3. GASGENERATOR CYCLE (GGC) CHARACTERISTICS
Simplest
Most common
Small amount of fuel and oxidizer fed to gas generator
Gas generator combustion products drive turbine
Turbine powers fuel and oxidizer pumps
Turbine exhaust can be vented through pipe/nozzle, or dumped into nozzle
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 220
3. GASGENERATOR CYCLE (GGC) CHARACTERISTICS
Gas-Generator (GG) Cycle:
The gas-generator cycle taps off a small amount of fuel and
oxidizer from the main flow (typically 3 to 7 percent) to feed a
burner called a gas generator. The hot gas from this generator
passes through a turbine to generate power for the pumps
that send propellants to the combustion chamber. The hot
gas is then either dumped overboard or sent into the main
nozzle downstream. Increasing the flow of propellants into
the gas generator increases the speed of the turbine, which
increases the flow of propellants into the main combustion
chamber (and hence, the amount of thrust produced). The
gas generator must burn propellants at a less-than-optimal
mixture ratio to keep the temperature low for the turbine
blades. Thus, the cycle is appropriate for moderate power
requirements but not high-power systems, which would have
to divert a large portion of the main flow to the less efficient
gas-generator flow.
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 221
3. GASGENERATOR CYCLE (GGC) CHARACTERISTICS
Vulcain 2
Ariane 5 Launcher
with Vulcain 2 engine
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 222
4. EXPANDER CYCLE (EC) CHARACTERISTICS
Fuel is heated by nozzle and thrust chamber to increase energy content
Sufficient energy provided to drive turbine
Turbine exhaust is fed to injector and burned in thrust chamber
Higher performance than gas generator cycle
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 223
4. EXPANDER CYCLE (EC) CHARACTERISTICS
Expander Cycle:
The expander cycle is similar to the staged combustion cycle
but has no preburner. Heat in the cooling jacket of the main
combustion chamber serves to vaporize the fuel. The fuel
vapor is then passed through the turbine and injected into
the main chamber to burn with the oxidizer. This cycle works
with fuels such as hydrogen or methane, which have a low
boiling point and can be vaporized easily. As with the staged
combustion cycle, all of the propellants are burned at the
optimal mixture ratio in the main chamber, and typically no
flow is dumped overboard; however, the heat transfer to the
fuel limits the power available to the turbine, making this
cycle appropriate for small to midsize engines. A variation of
the system is the open, or bleed, expander cycle, which uses
only a portion of the fuel to drive the turbine. In this
variation, the turbine exhaust is dumped overboard to
ambient pressure to increase the turbine pressure ratio and
power output. This can achieve higher chamber pressures
than the closed expander cycle although at lower efficiency
because of the overboard flow.
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 224
4. EXPANDER CYCLE (EC) CHARACTERISTICS
Vinci Ariane 5 (ECB) Launcher
with Vinci
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 225
5. STAGED COMBUSTION CYCLE (SCC) CHARACTERISTICS
Fuel and oxidizer burned in preburners (fuel/ox rich)
Combustion products drive turbine
Turbine exhaust fed to injector at high pressure
Used for high pressure engines
Most complex, requires sophisticated turbomachinery
Not very common
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 226
5. STAGED COMBUSTION CYCLE (SCC) CHARACTERISTICS
Staged Combustion (SC) Cycle:
In a staged combustion cycle, the propellants are burned in
stages. Like the gas-generator cycle, this cycle also has a
burner, called a preburner, to generate gas for a turbine. The
preburner taps off and burn a small amount of one propellant
and a large amount of the other, producing an oxidizer-rich or
fuel-rich hot gas mixture that is mostly unburned vaporized
propellant. This hot gas is then passed through the turbine,
injected into the main chamber, and burned again with the
remaining propellants. The advantage over the gas-generator
cycle is that all of the propellants are burned at the optimal
mixture ratio in the main chamber and no flow is dumped
overboard. The staged combustion cycle is often used for
high-power applications. The higher the chamber pressure,
the smaller and lighter the engine can be to produce the
same thrust. Development cost for this cycle is higher
because the high pressures complicate the development
process.
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 227
5. STAGED COMBUSTION CYCLE (SCC) CHARACTERISTICS
RD170
Atlas 5
RD170
Space Shuttle
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 228
6. FULL FLOW STAGED COMBUSTION CYCLE (FFSCC) CHARACTERISTICS
Full Flow Staged Combustion (FFSC) Cycle:
Full-flow staged combustion is a variation on the staged
combustion cycle where all of the fuel and all of the oxidizer
pass through their respective power turbines. A small amount
of fuel and oxidizer is swapped and combusted to supply
power for the turbines.
The turbines run cooler in this design since more mass passes
through them, leading to a longer engine life and higher
reliability. The design can provide higher chamber pressures
and therefore greater efficiency. An intrapropellant turbine
seal is also eliminated. Full gasification of components leads
to faster chemical reactions in the combustion chamber and,
as compared to the partial staged combustion cycle, it results
in an increase of specific impulse up to 1020 seconds (e.g.,
RD-270 and RD-0244).
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
ENDE
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 230
1. POWER CYCLE
RD170 multiple combustion chamber
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 231
STAGING
10. STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 232
STAGING
10. STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 233
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 234
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 235
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 236
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 237
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 238
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 239
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 240
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 241
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 242
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 243
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 244
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 245
5. Fundamentals
STAGING
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 246
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
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e
r
t
y
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f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
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d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 247
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 248
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 249
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 250
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
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t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 251
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 252
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 253
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 254
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 255
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 256
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 257
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 258
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 259
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 260
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 261
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
i s
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s
t h
e
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y
o
f
A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d
t o
t h
i r
d
p
a
r
t i e
s
w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r
w
r
i t t e
n
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s
c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e
d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 262
Syllabus
http://www.google.de/imgres?imgurl=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/n
ozzle.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf3-
2.php&usg=__7GpCYGdP1rT1YtL_-
xlzrSDb30k=&h=145&w=237&sz=44&hl=de&start=141&zoom=1&tbn
id=Kp87GYcH4N93XM:&tbnh=113&tbnw=185&ei=-
kHWTp7WFcPj4QTnsITBAQ&prev=/search%3Fq%3DVulcain%2Bengi
ne%2Bchamber%26hl%3Dde%26gbv%3D2%26biw%3D1280%26bih%
3D798%26tbm%3Disch&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=814&vpy=458&dur=13
28&hovh=116&hovw=189&tx=87&ty=64&sig=107382299456371278
542&page=6&ndsp=26&ved=1t:429,r:4,s:141
http://waowen.screaming.net/revision/force&motion/ncananim.htm