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LECTURE ON PROPULSION

Technical University Warsaw (WTU)


Walter Zinner
EADS Astrium Space Transportation, Munich
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Syllabus
1. Past and present... 04
2. Budgets... 17
3. Manned programs and costs22
4. International launch systems..... 38
5. Industry 55
6. Newton's laws. 63
7. Orbits. 75
8. Kepler's laws. 92
9. Propulsion fundamentals 96
10. Rocket Staging. 197
11. Liquid propulsion 212
12. Solid propulsion
13. Electric propulsion .
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Syllabus
14. Electric propulsion.. ..
15. Hybrid propulsion..
16. Nuclear propulsion. ..
17. Micro propulsion. ..
18. Advanced propulsion. .
19. Launch Vehicles
20. Economics.. .
21. Perspectives...

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1.
Past and Present
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1. PAST AND PRESENT
1. THE IDEA AGE (4000 B.C. to 1900 A.D.)
B.C.:
4000 Babylonian scripts report on a man swinging upward to the heavens with help of an eagle.
This is the first time that the human motive going skyward is documented.
3200 First painting of a human flight skyward is originated, showing the Babylonian king Eklan.
3000 Firework rockets are reported to have been used in China.
1500 The myth of Icarus and Daedalus is originated.

A.D.:
845 Marcus Grecus mentions the rocket in his scripts.
1247 Roger Bacon's Epistola describes the composition of black powder.
1260 Rockets (rocchetta = spindle) are used in Italy against sea pirates.
1420 De Fontana (Italy) proposed rockets as propulsion for cars, boats, and torpedoes.
1500 The Chinese Mandarin Wan-Hoo tries, for the first time, to propel a car by rockets.
1865 Jule Verne (France) published his book: From Earth to Moon.
1891 Hermann Ganswindt, Berlin, makes the first design drawing of a spaceship based on solid
propellant propulsion.
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2. THE CONCEPT AGE (1900 to 1934)

1903 Konstantin Eduardowitsch Ziolkowski (Russia) publishes his first
booklet, entitled: A Rocket into Cosmic Space. He proposes, at that
time, the use of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.


1919 Robert Hutschings Goddard (USA) publishes his first book on his
research activities, under the title: A Method of Reaching Extreme
Altitudes.


1923 Hermann Oberth (Germany) publishes his first book: The Rocket into
Interplanetary Space. Therein, he establishes the basic theory of space
flight.
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3. THE CONCEPT AGE (1900 to 1934)
1925 Walter Hohmann, Germany, publishes his fundamental book: The Possibility of
Reaching Celestial Bodies.
1926 R.H. Goddard launches, on March 16, the first successful rocket with liquid propellants,
which reaches an altitude of about 300 ft ( 100 m).
1928 Rocket cars are built in Germany by Valier, Opel and Sanders, reaching velocities up to
230 km/h.
1930 The first permanent rocket test-flight is established in Berlin, Germany.
1933 Eugen Saenger publishes is fundamental investigations on rocket engines in the book
Rocket Propulsion, Germany.
1934 Last test flights on the Raketenplatz Berlin-Reinickendorf and near Magdeburg in
Germany.

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4. THE MISSILE AGE (1935 to September 1957)
1936 A.D. Crow begins organized development of war rockets in England, leading to
the 2-, 3-and 5-in. rockets used during World War II.
1937 The German Rocket Development Center Peenemnde is established,
under the technical direction of Wernher von Braun.



Figure: Wernher von Braun
1937 The first successful flight of an airplane with an exclusive liquid-rocket propulsion
system takes place: the Heinkel He 176 with a Walter engine.
1938 The German A-3 rocket (the early model of the V-2) attains an altitude of 12 km.
1942 In July, the first successful flight of the German V-2 rocket sets new
records for velocity (Ma=5) and altitude (85 km).



Figure: German V2
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4. THE MISSILE AGE (1935 to September 1957)
1944 In September, the first German V-2 rockets become operational.
1944 In March, the first vertical manned rocket flight is conducted with the Bachem-Natter.
The test pilot is killed.
1945 In October, the first light of the American WAC Corporal Rocket takes place (altitude 70 km).
1946 In April, the first launch of a V-2 rocket at White Sands Proving Grounds (WAPG), USA.
1946 In October, the first supersonic flight of a manned rocket-research plane, the Bell X-1A9,
takes place.





Figure: Chuck Jeager
1953 In August, the first successful flight of a large American military rocket,
the Redstone missile, takes place.
1957 In August, the Soviet Prime Minister Khrushchev announces a successful flight
of a Soviet ICBM over 6.000 km.
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5. THE SPACE AGE (October 4, 1957 to today)
1957 On January 31, the successful launch of the first American satellite
Explorer I is made by the U.S. Army.




1957 On October 4, the first successful launch of an artificial earth satellite,
the Soviet Sputnik I, occurs.


Figure: Sputnik Satellite

1957 On September 14, a Soviet rocket impacts on the moon's surface,
the first time the moon is reached by a man-made vehicle.
1957 On April 1, successful launch of the first satellite with TV cameras, Tiros I, takes place.
1960 On April 29, the first Saturn booster test firing with all eight engines.
1960 On August 20, the Soviet satellite Sputnik V is launched with two dogs aboard. One day
later, these dogs returned alive.
1. PAST AND PRESENT
Figure: Pickering, Van Allen, and von Braun display a full-scale model of Explorer 1 at a crowded news
conference in Washington, DC after confirmation the satellite was in orbit.
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5. THE SPACE AGE (October 4, 1957 to today)
1961 On April 12, Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to enter space and return safely.




Figure: Gagarin
1961 On May 5, Alan Shepard becomes the first American man in space. The suborbital flight,
which was part of the Mercury project, lasted 15 minutes, 28 seconds.
1961 On May 25, President John F. Kennedy announces the goal of sending astronauts to the
moon before the end of the decade.
1962 On February 20, astronaut John Glenn the first American to go into orbit. Total flight time
was just shy of five hours.




Figure: John Glenn
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5. THE SPACE AGE (October 4, 1957 to today)
1969 On July 20, Astronauts Edwin Aldrin and Neil Armstrong become the first men on the moon.




Figure: Moon Lander, Neil Armstrong

1970 China launches its first satellite, DFH-1, on a CZ-1 rocket from Jiuquan.
1971 The Soviet Union launches the world's first space station, Salyut 1.
1972 On March, launch of unmanned Pioneer 10: Earth's first space probe to an outer planet.
1973 On May 14, United States launches its first experimental space station, the Skylab.
1975 Japan conducts its first orbital launch from Tanegashima.
1979 The European Space Agency (ESA) launches its first Ariane 1 rocket from Kourou.




Figure: Ariane 1

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5. THE SPACE AGE (October 4, 1957 to today)
1980 India launches its first satellite, Rohini RS-1, on a SLV-3 rocket from Sriharikota.
1981 The United States launches STS-1, the first orbital test flight of the Space Shuttle and
maiden flight of Columbia. The space shuttle is the first reusable spacecraft.




Figure: Columbia Launch

1984 The first successful launch from China's Xichang Satellite Launch Center, a CZ-3 rocket.
1985 Giotto, Europe's first deep-space probe, is launched.
1986 The Soviet Union launches Mir, a new generation space station. The station is occupied
by 28 long stay crews.
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5. THE SPACE AGE (October 4, 1957 to today)
1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.



Figure: Challenger

1998 Shuttle mission STS-88 is the first ISS assembly flight and first habitation of the ISS.
2001 American businessman Dennis Tito becomes the first space tourist, purchasing a flight
aboard a Russian Soyuz.
2003 The space shuttle Columbia breaks up during reentry, loss of both vehicle and 7-person crew.
2003 ESA launches SMART-1, the first European mission to the Moon, using ion propulsion.
2004 The suborbital flight of Space Ship One is the first privately funded, non-government manned
space flight.




Figure: Space Ship One
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5. THE SPACE AGE (October 4, 1957 to today)
2008 Successful launch of ATV-1, Jules Verne.




Figure: ATV

2009 The International Space Station begins regular six-person crew operations.


Figure: ISS
2010 The SpaceX Dragon (USA) becomes the first spacecraft placed in orbit and recovered by a
private company.


Figure: Dragon
2011 STS 135 last Shuttle flight. 30 years flight period ended on July 21, 2011.

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6. SUMMARY (4000 B.C. to 2011)


From Chinese Fire Arrows to the US Space Shuttle
Brief History of Rockets
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i s
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l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 17
2.
BUDGETS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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m
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t
i s

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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 18
2. BUDGETS
1. SPACE AGENCIES WITH LAUNCH CAPAPILITY
1. China National Space Administration (CNSA)
2. European Space Agency (ESA)
3. Iranian Space Agency (ISA)
4. Israeli Space Agency (ISA)
5. Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
6. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
7. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
8. State Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU)
9. Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS)

2. SPACE AGENCIES WITH MANNED SPACE FLIGHT CAPAPILITY
1. China National Space Administration (CNSA)
2. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
3. Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS)
T
h
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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 19
3. AGENCY BUDGETS
1. NASA USA M$ 19,000
2. ESA Europe M$ 4,0
3. ROSCOSMOS Russia M$ 3,800
4. CNES France M$ 2,822
5. JAXA Japan M$ 2,460
6. DLR Germany M$ 2,000
7. CNSA China M$ 1,300
8. ISRO India M$ 1,268
9. ASI Italy M$ 1,000
10. ISA Iran M$ 500
11. UKSA UK M$ 414
12. AEB Brazil M$ 343
13. CSA Canada M$ 300
14. KARI South Korea M$ 300
15. NSAU Ukraine M$ 250
16. BELSPO Belgium M$ 170
17. CONAE Argentina M$ 148
18. INTA Spain M$ 135
19. SNSB Sweden M$ 100
20. SUPARCO Pakistan M$ 82
21. SRON Netherlands M$ 26
22. SSO Switzerland M$ 10
23. AEM Mexico M$ 8,34
The annual budgets are the
official budgets for national
space agencies available in
public domain:
M$ 38,894.77 p.a.
2. BUDGETS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 20
4. EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCA (ESA)
19 member states
6 establishments (Paris, Madrid,
Rome, Nordwijk, Cologne,
Darmstadt) in Europe, about
2200 staff
4 billion Euro budget
Over 70 satellites designed,
tested and operated in flight
Six types of launcher developed
Launcher budget: 612,5 M in
2011
2. BUDGETS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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n
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i s

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e

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l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 21
2. BUDGETS
2011 income from
Member States and
Canada
2975.0 M
M: Million Euro
CA: 0.5%, 20.5 M
UK: 6.6%, 265.3 M
CH: 2.4%, 96.2 M
SE: 1.5%, 59.9 M
ES: 5.1%, 201.9 M
PT: 0.4%, 15.8 M
NO: 1.6%, 63.2 M
NL: 2.1%, 84.2 M
LU: 0.3%, 11.5 M
AT: 1.3%, 54.0 M
CZ: 0.3%, 10.4 M
DE: 17.9%, 713.8 M
DK: 0.8%, 31.2 M
FI: 0.5%, 20.1 M
FR: 18.8%, 751.4 M
Income from EU, ECSA and
Other: 25,5%, 1018.8 M

Income from Member States and Canada 2975.0 M (74.5%)
Income from EU 777.9M (19.5%)
Income from European Cooperating States (ECSA) 7.9 M (0.2%)
Other income 233.0 M (5.8%)
Total 3993.8 M (100%)
IE: 0.4%, 15.6 M
GR: 0.4%, 14.9 M
BE: 4.1%, 164.8 M
4. EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCA (ESA)
T
h
i s

d
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d
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l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 22
2. BUDGETS
4. EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCA (ESA)
Programs and mandatory activities 3985.9 M
European Cooperating States Agreement (ECSA) 7.9 M
Total 3993.8 M
T
h
i s

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d
.
R&T Management TS1
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5. SPACE STATUS OF POLAND
The Space Research Centre (SRC, Polish: Centrum Badao Kosmicznych) is an interdisciplinary
research institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences. It was established in 1977. SRC PAS is the
only institute in Poland whose activity is fully dedicated to the research of terrestrial space, the
solar system and the Earth using space technology and satellite techniques.

Cooperation agreement with ESA 28 January 1994
European Cooperating State (ECS) Agreement 27 April 2007
PECS (Plan for European Cooperating States) Charter 28 April 2008
ESA Convention 2012 or 2013
2. BUDGETS
T
h
i s

d
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s
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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 24
3.
MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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m
e
n
t
i s

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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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1. MERCURY PROGRAM (1958 1963)
Project Mercury began in 1958 and was America's first manned space
program. Between 1961 and 1963 there were six manned space flights.
The goals of the program were to orbit a manned spacecraft around
Earth; investigate man's ability to function in space; and recover both
man and spacecraft safely. This program resulted in the first American in
space and the first American to orbit the Earth. On May 5, 1961, Alan B.
Shepard became the first American to fly in space aboard his ship
Freedom 7. The mission lasted only 15 minutes and reached an altitude
of 116.5 miles. The success of this mission prompted President Kennedy
to announce the goal of placing a man on the moon before the end of
the decade. Nine months later, aboard Friendship 7), John Glenn
became the first American to orbit the Earth. This accomplishment was
undermined by the fact that the Soviets had succeeded nearly one year
earlier to orbit a man around the Earth. On April 12, 1961, Yuri Gagarin
became the first person ever in space. He orbited the Earth once during
his 108 minute flight and reached a maximum altitude of 203 miles. John
Glenn's historic flight lasted 4 hours and 55 minutes. He orbited the
Earth 3 times and reached a maximum altitude of 162.5 miles.
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
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i s

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I t s

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s
h
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n
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t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 26
2. GEMINI PROGRAM (1962 -1966)
It was begun in January 1962. It was designed to extend the
existing manned space flight program by launching a two-man
craft. There were a total of 2 unmanned and 10 manned
launches. The goals of the program were to subject humans and
equipment to up to two weeks in space; dock with orbiting
vehicles; and land at a pre-selected point. This was the next
logical step toward landing men on the moon. The goals were
met and the project was considered a success.

Gemini IV, launched on June 3, 1965, included America's first
extravehicular activity (EVA) or space walk. Edward White spent
22 minutes outside the spacecraft. Gemini VII, which lasted
nearly 14 days, was intended to test whether humans could live
in space for 2 weeks. Neil Armstrong, the first man on the moon,
did other cool stuff before that. He was aboard the extremely
short Gemini VIII mission which lasted less than 11 hours. During
that time they achieved the first docking with another space
vehicle.
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
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d

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d

p
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w
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n

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m
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n
t .
I t s

c
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t
s
h
a
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n
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b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 27
3. APOLLO PROGRAM (1963 1973)
The Apollo program began in 1963 with the expressed goal of
landing a man on the moon. During its nine years, six missions
(Apollo 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17) landed a total of twelve men
on the moon. Apollo 7 and 9 were earth orbiting and Apollo 8
and 10 orbited the moon. The historic Apollo 8 mission was the
first to take humans to the moon and back. Apollo 10 was a
practice run for landing on the moon but did not actually touch
down. The Apollo 11 spacecraft was launched on July 16, 1969
atop the very powerful Saturn V rocket. It took three days to
reach the moon. One of the greatest moments in human history
came on July 20, 1969, when Neil Alden Armstrong became the
first human to walk on the moon. As he stepped from the lunar
module, the Eagle, he spoke the now famous words, One small
step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. The other
astronauts on board were Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin Jr. and Michael
Collins (who stayed in orbit and did not land on the moon). They
spent only 21 hours, 38 minutes, and 21 seconds on the moon's
surface with only 2 hours 31 minutes outside the lunar module.
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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m
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i s

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p
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m
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n
t .
I t s

c
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t
s
h
a
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b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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4. SPACE SHUTTLE PROGRAM (1981 2011)
The Space Shuttle program began with the launch of STS-1 on
April 12, 1981. Space Shuttle Columbia spent only two days in
space as it tested everything out and returned safely to Earth.
This began the first reusable spacecraft program. No other flying
machine (airplane, helicopter, or rocket ) is able to serve as a
home for pilots, carry cargo, fly in space or in our atmosphere,
maneuver around in orbit, land on a runway, and be ready to do
it all over again in just a few weeks.
On January 28, 1986, the Space Shuttle Challenger (STS-51)
Launched with the first teacher, Christa McAuliffe. Tragically, the
shuttle exploded only 73 seconds after liftoff. The tragedy
resulted in the suspension of the program for over 2 and 1/2
years. The second and most recent shuttle disaster occurred on
February 1, 2003 when the shuttle Columbia broke up only 16
minutes from home.

3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

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e

p
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p
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m
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I t s

c
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t
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a
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b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 29
5. INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION ISS (1985 2015)
The first use of the term "space station" was by Hermann Oberth
who, in 1923, used it to describe a wheel like structure in space
that would act as a launching site for further human missions to
the moon or Mars. In 1952, Dr. Werner von Braun envisioned a
space station that was 250 feet in diameter and would orbit
more than 1000 miles above the planet earth. It would also spin
to create a sense of gravity.
In 1971 the Soviets launched the world's first space station
Salyut 1. Followed in 1973 by Skylab, a larger US space station
that hosted three crews and then was abandoned. In 1986, the
Soviets put the Mir Space Station in orbit which was the most
successful space station until it was abandoned and burned up in
the atmosphere on March 22, 2001. The International Space
Station is a large human inhabited satellite orbiting more than
250 miles above the earth. The first two parts of the were
launched in 1998. It is able to support life and crews have been
living there since 2000. It is a global partnership between 16
countries. Internal space is as much as of a 747 jumbo jet.
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
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c
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t
i s

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e

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w
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n

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t .
I t s

c
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b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 30
6. COSTS OF PILOTED US PROGRAMS
This graph shows the amount spent by the United States on piloted spaceflight from 1959 to
2015 (All figures in 2010 dollars).
A) Apollo program ($100
billion over ten years),
B) Space Shuttle
$200 billion over 40 years
C) Space Station program $70
billion spent in 30 years
D) Exploration program nearly
$50 billion in 12 years

In all, the US spent
$486 billion over 57 years,
an average of
$8.3 billion a year.
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
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i s

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p
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n

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c
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b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 31
7. COSTS OF PILOTED US PROGRAMS
Program Period
Current cost (a)
(millions $)
End of Program Cost (b)
(millions $)
Cost in 2010 $ (c)
(billions $)
Mercury 1959-1963 269 277 1.6
Gemini 1962-1967 1,282 1,342 7.2
Apollo 1959-1973 20,443 29.3 109
Skylab 1966-1974 2,256 2,786 10
Apollo-Soyuz 1972-1975 245 258 1
Space Shuttle 1972-2012 123,031 198,569 199
Space Station: . . . 150
NASA Funding 1985-2015 58,695 72,102 .
Shuttle flights 1998-2010 n/a 53,374 126
Int'l Partners 1986-2015 . . 24
Exploration Programs 2003-2015 46,208 n/a 48
Total 1959-2015 274,757 n/a 486
a) Adding yearly costs without taking into account inflation.
b) Adding yearly costs taking into account inflation.
c) Adding yearly costs in 2010 $ (rounded).
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
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n

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m
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t .
I t s

c
o
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n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 32
8. COSTS OF PILOTED US PROGRAMS

Program Units Cost in 2010 $
Mercury 6 piloted flights $ 265 millions per flight
Gemini 10 piloted flights $ 723 millions per flight
Apollo 11 piloted flights $ 9.9 billions per flight
6 lunar landings $ 18 billions per lunar landing
Skylab 510 day-person $ 20.3 millions per station-day-person
Apollo-Soyuz NASA funding $ 1 billion for the U.S. portion only
Space Shuttle 134 piloted flights $ 1.5 billion per flight
Space Station: 20,000 day-person $ 7.5 millions per station-day-person
Exploration Programs ISS budget 2003-2015 1 time those of ISS
Constellation Moon Program Total costs $ 10 billions were spent 2004-2009
Total U.S. spending 57 years $ 8.3 billions per year
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
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t
i s

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e

p
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m
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I t s

c
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s
h
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n
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b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 33
9. COSTS OF PILOTED US PROGRAMS

1959 1963: $ 1,588 millions (in 2010 $)
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
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t
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e

p
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a
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m
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c
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s
h
a
l l
n
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b
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d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 34
10. COSTS OF PILOTED US PROGRAMS

1962 1967: $ 7,330 billions (in 2010 $)
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

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e

p
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c
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n
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b
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d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 35
11. COSTS OF PILOTED US PROGRAMS
1959 1973: $ 109,023 millions (in 2010 $)
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

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e

p
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c
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s
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n
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b
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d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 36
12. COSTS OF PILOTED US PROGRAMS
1966 1974: $ 10,345 millions (in 2010 $)
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

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e

p
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I t s

c
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s
h
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n
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b
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d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 37
13. COSTS OF PILOTED US PROGRAMS
1972 1975: $ 957 millions (in 2010 $)
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

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e

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I t s

c
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n
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b
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d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 38
14. COSTS OF PILOTED US PROGRAMS
1972 2011: $ 199,879 millions (in 2010 $)
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

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e

p
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c
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 39
15. COSTS OF PILOTED US PROGRAMS
1985 2015: $ 72,4 millions, 36 Shuttle flights to ISS excluded
Total cost: $ 150 billions, NASA (72 B$) + 36 Shuttle flights (54 B$) + Russia (12 B$)
+ ESA (5 B$) + Japan (5 B$) + Canada (2 B$)
3. MANNED PROGRAMS AND COSTS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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d
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c
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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 40
4.
INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
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e
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t
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 41
1. THE MOST SUCCESSFUL INTERNATIONAL LAUNCHERS
Rank
Launcher
Family
Launch
Success
Launch
Failure
Total
Launches
Success
Rate
Number
of Payload
Carried
Percent
of Total
Payload
Carried
First Launch
-
Last Launch
1 Saturn 28 0 28 100 % 46 0.67 % 1961 - 1975
2 Minotaur 10 0 10 100 % 43 0.62 % 2000 - 2010
3
Space
Shuttle
131 1 129 99.24 % 273 3.91 % 1981 - 2010
4
Semiorka
(Russia-era)
261 4 265 98.49 % 323 4.63 % 1992 - 2010
5 Tsyklon 225 10 235 95.74 % 363 5.30 % 1964 - 2009
6 Delta 336 15 351 95.73 % 477 6.83 % 1960 - 2010
7 Kosmos C 438 24 462 94.81 % 847 12.13 % 1964 - 2010
8 Ariane 188 10 199 94.72 % 355 5.08 % 1979 - 2010
-
Semiorka
(Soviet-era)
1,362 84 1,446 94.19 % 1,497 21.84 % 1957 - 1991
9 Dnepr 15 1 16 93.75 % 77 1.10 % 1994 - 2010
10 Chang Zheng 128 9 137 93.43 % 172 2.46 % 1969 - 2010
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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c
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 42
2. LAUNCHER AND LAUNCH SUCCESS RATES
6,854 spacecrafts were launched between 1957 and 2009 by 5,038 rockets. Of these launches,
4,621 were successful and 417 failed to put their payloads into orbit. This represents a 91.7%
rate of success or 11 successes for every 12 launch attempts. The most frequently used
launcher is the Russian A Semiorka rocket.

The most used launchers are:
Russian, A Semiorka 1698 launches 94,8% success
Russian, Kosmos C 461 launches 95% success
American, Atlas 347 launches 88% success
Russian, D Proton 351 launches 89% success
American, Delta 347 launches 96% success
American, Thor 244 launches 86% success
Russian, F Tsyklon 235 launches 96% success
American, Titan 220 launches 92% success
European, Ariane 193 launches 94% success
Russian, Kosmos B 165 launches 87% success
American, Space Shuttle 129 launches 99% success
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 43
3. LAUNCHER STATISTICS
Nation
Successful
Launches
Launch
Failures
Total
Success
Rate
% of Total
Launches
Spacecraft
Launched
% of spacecraft
launched
Russia 2,847 201 3,049 93.39 % 60.53 % 3,888... 56.7 %...
United
States
1,368 154 1,522 89.88 % 30.22 % 2,250... 32.8 %...
Europe 193 17 211 91.71 % 4.19 % 379... 5.5 %...
China 117 15 132 88.64 % 2.62 % 166... 2.4 %...
Japan 69 14 83 83.13 % 1.65 % 103... 1.5 %...
India 20 8 29 70.69 % 0.55 % 55... 0.8 %...
Israel 5 2 7 71.43 % 0.14 % 7... 0.1 %...
Brazil 0 3 3 00.00 % 0.06 % 4... 0.1 %...
Iran 1 0 1 100.00 % 0.02 % 1... 0.1 %...
S. Korea 0 1 1 00.00 % 0.02 % 1... 0.1 %...
Total 4,621 416 5,038 91.73 % 100.00 % 6,854... 100 %..
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 44
4. LAUNCHER SUCCESS RATE
Here are the twelve rockets that have been launched at least 100 times. This graph shows that
the Russian Semyorka has been launched 1,698 times (with 86 failures, in black), followed by
the Kosmos C launcher (with 461 launches and 24 failures), then by the Proton (351 launches,
with 38 failures), and by the Atlas (347 launches and 40 failures).
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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e

p
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e

d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 45
5. LAUNCHER SUCCESS RATE
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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m
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c
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b
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 46
4. International Launch Systems
6. LAUNCHER SUCCESS RATE


T
h
i s

d
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c
l o
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e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 47
7. PAYLOAD SURVEY
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
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n
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e

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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 48
8. SPACECRAFT LAUNCHED BY NATIONS
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 49
9. NUMBER OF LAUNCHED SPACECRAFT
Some 6,854 spacecraft were launched between 1957 and 2009, 52% of them for Russia (in
red), 26% for the United States (blue), 12% for other countries (yellow) and 10% for
corporations and amateurs (green).
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 50
10. SPACECRAFTS LAUNCHED ANNUALY
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 51
11. MILITARY SPACECRAFTS
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 52
12. CIVILIAN SPACECRAFTS
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 53
13. THE ARIANE LAUNCHER FAMILY
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 54
14. ARIANE LAUNCH RATES
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 55
15. LAUNCH RATE OF THE ARIANE FAMILIY
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 56
16. RELIABILITY OF THE ARIANE LAUNCHER FAMILY
Type Success/total launch Success rate First/last launch
Ariane 1 9 in 11 launches 81.8 % 24 Dec 79 to 22 Feb 86
Ariane 2 4 in 5 launches 80.0 % 31 Mar 86 to 2 Apr 88
Ariane 3 11 in 12 launches 91.7 % 4 Aug 84 to 12 Jul 89
Ariane 4 113 in 116 launches 97.4 % 15 Jun 88 to 15 Feb 03
Ariane 5 45 in 49 launches 92.9 % 4 Jun 96 to 31 Dec 09
Total 182 on 193 launches 94.6 % 24 Dec 79 to 20 Dec 09
Ariane summary
(As of December 2009)
.
4. INTERNATIONAL LAUNCH SYSTEMS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 57
5.
INDUSTRY
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
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o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 58
5. INDUSTRY
1. ORBITAL OPTIONS
A Geosynchronous satellite (GEO) completes
one revolution around the world every 23 hrs
and 56 minutes in order to maintain
continuous positioning above the earths
sub-satellite point on the equator.

A medium earth orbit satellite (MEO)
requires a constellation of 10 to 18 satellites
in order to maintain constant coverage of the
earth.

A low earth orbit satellite (LEO) offers
reduced signal loss since these satellites are
20 to 40 times closer to the earth in their
orbits thus allowing for smaller user
terminals/antennas.
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
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f

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s
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m
.
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s
h
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n
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t
b
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c
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d

p
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s

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t
p
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r

w
r
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n

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g
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m
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n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 59
5. INDUSTRY
2. GESTATIONARY ORBIT (GEO)
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
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f

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s
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m
.
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d

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d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
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t
p
r
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r

w
r
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n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 60
5. INDUSTRY
3. OPERATIONAL SATELLITES BY ORBIT

405
480
35
66
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
S
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e
s
GEO LEO ELI MEO
GEO
LEO
ELI
MEO
LEO: Lowe Earth Orbit; MEO: Medium Earth Orbit; ELI: Elliptical Orbit; GEO: Geosynchronous Orbit
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
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y

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f

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s
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m
.
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s
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I t s

c
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n
t
s
h
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l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 61
5. INDUSTRY
4. OPERATIONAL SATELLITES BY FUNCTION

5
9
9
2
7
0
7
5
8
9
4
4
8
4
1
0
8
3
6
5
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
S
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e
s
Space Science
Remote Sensing
Other
Navigation
Military
Meteorological
Military Communication
Civil Communication
Commercial Communication
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
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y

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f

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s
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m
.
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s
h
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n
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b
e

c
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t
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d

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d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
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o
u
t
p
r
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r

w
r
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n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 62
5. INDUSTRY
5. WORDL SATELLITE INDUSTRY REVENUES

88,8
105,5
121,7
144,4
160,9
168,1
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
R
e
v
e
n
u
e

(
B
i
l
l
i
o
n

U
S
D
)
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
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t
y

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f

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s
t r
i u
m
.
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s
h
a
l l
n
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t
b
e

c
o
m
m
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n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 63
5. INDUSTRY
6. WORLD SATELLITE INDUSTRY REVENUES BY SEGMENT

3 3 3
11
7 7
27
32
31
59
58
60
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
%
Launch
Industry
Satel l i te
Manufacturi ng
Ground
Equi pment
Satel l i te
Servi ces
2006: 105,5 USD
2008: 144,4 USD
2010: 168,1 UDS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
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r
t
y

o
f

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s
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m
.
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s
h
a
l l
n
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t
b
e

c
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n
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d

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d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
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o
u
t
p
r
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r

w
r
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n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
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n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 64
5. INDUSTRY
7. LAUNCH INDUSTRY REVENUES

1,5
3
1
2,7
1
3,2
1,1
3,9
1,9
4,5
1,2
4,3
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
5
R
e
v
e
n
u
e

(
B
i
l
l
i
o
n

U
S
D
)
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
USA
World
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
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s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
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d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
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o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
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n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 65
6.
NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

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f

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s
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i u
m
.
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s
h
a
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n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
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o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 66
1. THE PROCESS TO MOVE AN OBJECT
While the machinery is complex, the principles of operation are common to most
propulsion systems:
1. Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise
2. According to Newtons second law of motion, the net force exerted on an object is
equal to the rate of change of its momentum.
3. According to Newtons third law of motion, every action (of a force) produces an
equal and opposite reaction actio = reactio
For flight in the atmosphere, air is used as the working fluid whose momentum is
changed by the propulsion system.
The reaction to the resulting force acts on the propulsion system and drives the
aircraft forward.
Since momentum is the product of mass and velocity, designers can choose to
produce a given increase of momentum by either accelerating a large mass of fluid per
second through a small change in velocity, or accelerating a smaller mass of fluid
through a large increase in velocity.
6. NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

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e

p
r
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y

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f

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s
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m
.
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s
h
a
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n
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b
e

c
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a
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d

t o

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i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 67
2. NEWTONS FIRST LAW
An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion at constant
velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

6. NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 68
3. NEWTONS SECOND LAW
The net force of an object is equal to the product of its mass and acceleration.



Newtons 2nd Law proves that different masses accelerate to the earth at the same
rate, but with different forces.








F ~ a
6. NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 69
4. NEWTONS THIRD LAW
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

6. NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 70
5. EXAMPELS FOR NEWTONS THIRD LAW
6. NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 71
6. THE PROCESS TO MOVE AN OBJECT
For example, helicopters and propeller-driven airplanes use large rotating blades to
capture a large amount of air and accelerate it through a relatively small change in
velocity.
For flight at high speeds, turbojet and ramjet engines, which usually have small intake
areas, add heat to the captured air. This heat is then converted to the work done in
accelerating the air through a large velocity change.



The same principle applies to
rocket propulsion,
in the atmosphere or in outer space
6. NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 72
7. ORBITS
Newtons concept of escape velocity:
- Newton created a hypothetical scenario as follows. A person climbed a very tall
mountain and launched a projectile horizontally from the peak.
- The projectile follows a parabolic path (see the above discussion relating to projectile
motion) before striking the ground. If another projectile were launched faster than the
first, then it would travel further before striking the ground. If yet another projectile
were launched fast enough, then it should be able to travel right around the Earth
because, as it falls, the surface of the Earth curves away from it.
- The curve of the projectiles motion would follow that of the earths surface and thus
not hit it.
- This projectile would then be in a circular orbit at a fixed height above the earths
surface.


6. NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 73
8. NEWTONS CANNON
Newton's Gravitational Law



6. NEWTONS LAWS
Increasing
Muzzle velocity
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 74
9. CIRCULAR ORBITS








1. In any circular orbit, the centripetal force (Fc) required to maintain the orbit is
provided by the gravitational force (g) on the satellite. To calculate the geostationary
orbit altitude, one begins with this equivalence, and uses the fact that the orbital
period is one sidereal day:
(1) F
c
= F
g

6. NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 75
10. CIRCULAR ORBITS
2. By Newton's second law of motion, we can replace the forces F with the mass m of
the object multiplied by the acceleration felt by the object due to that force:
(2) M a
c
= M g
We note that the mass of the satellite M appears on both sides of the equation, i.e.
geostationary orbit is independent of the mass of the satellite.
3. Calculating the altitude simplifies into calculating the point where the magnitudes of
the centripetal acceleration (a
c
) required for orbital motion and the gravitational
acceleration provided by Earth's gravity are equal.
(3) a
c
=
2
r
4. The magnitude of the gravitational acceleration is:
(4) g = G M / r
2

where M is the mass of Earth, 5.9736 1024 kg, and G is the gravitational constant,
6.67428 0.00067 1011 m3 kg1 s2
6. NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 76
10. CIRCULAR ORBITS
5. Equating the two accelerations gives:
(5) r = (G M /
2
)
1/3

The product G M is known with much greater precision than either factor alone; it is
known as the geocentric gravitational constant = 398,600.4418 0.0008 km3 s2:
(6) r = ( /
2
)
1/3
6. The angular speed is found by dividing the angle travelled in one revolution (360 = 2
rad) by the orbital period (the time it takes to make one full revolution: one sidereal day,
or 86,164.09054 seconds). This gives:
(7) 2 rad / 86,164 7,2921 10
-5
7. The resulting orbital radius is 42,164 kilometers (26,199 mi). Subtracting the Earth's
equatorial radius, 6,378 kilometers (3,963 mi), gives the altitude of 35,786 kilometers
(22,236 mi).
8. Orbital speed (how fast the satellite is moving through space) is:
(8) r = 3,0746 km/sec = 11.068 km/h
6. NEWTONS LAWS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 77
7.
ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 78
1. ORBIT VELOCITIES

Orbit name
Orbit
initials
Orbit altitude (km
above Earth's
surface)
Details / comments
Low earth orbit LEO 200 1.200
Medium Earth
Orbit
MEO 1.200 35.790
Geostationary
Orbit
GSO 35.790
Orbits once a day, but not necessarily in
the same direction as the rotation of
the Earth - not necessarily stationary
Geostationary
Orbit
GEO 35.790
Orbits once a day and moves in the
same direction as the Earth and
therefore appears stationary above the
same point on the Earth's surface. Can
only be above the Equator.
High Earth Orbit HEO Above 35.790
7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 79
2. MAIN ORBITS
Important Orbits:
- LEO, GEO, MEO

7. ORBITS
1: Earth
Zone 2: Low Earth orbit
Zone 3: Medium earth orbit
Zone 4: Geosynchronous earth orbit.
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 80
3. LOW EARTH ORBITS (LEO)
Applications for LEO satellites
A variety of different types of satellite use the LEO orbit levels. These include different
types and applications including:
- Communications satellites - some communications satellites including the Iridium
phone system use LEO.
- Earth monitoring satellites use LEO as they are able to see the surface of the Earth
more clearly as they are not so far away. They are also able to traverse the surface
of the Earth.
- The International Space Station is in an LEO that varies between 320 km (199 miles)
and 400 km (249 miles) above the Earth's surface. It can often be seen from the
Earth's surface with the naked eye.


7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 81
4. LOW EARTH ORBITS (LEO)
Applications for LEO satellites
- space debris
- tens of millions in LEO
7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 82
5. GEOSTATIONARY ORBITS
Applications for GSO satellites

Advantages Disadvantages
Satellite always in same position
relative to earth - antennas do not
need re-orientation
Long path length, and hence
losses when compared to LEO, or
MEO.
Satellites more costly to install in
GEO in view of greater altitude.
Long path length introduces
delays.
Geostationary satellite orbits can
only be above the equator and
therefore polar regions cannot be
covered.
7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 83
6. HIGH ELIPTICAL ORBITS
HEO, applications:
- The highly elliptical satellite orbit can be used to provide coverage over any point on
the globe. The HEO is not limited to equatorial orbits like the geostationary orbit and
the resulting lack of high latitude and polar coverage.

- As a result it ability to provide high latitude and polar coverage, countries such as
Russia which need coverage over polar and near polar areas make significant use of
highly elliptical orbits, HEO.

- With two satellites in any orbit, they are able to provide continuous coverage. The
main disadvantage is that the satellite position from a point on the Earth does not
remain the same
7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 84
7. TRANSFER ORBITS
Transfer orbit:
If we speed the satellite up while it's in low circular
earth orbit it will go into elliptical orbit, heading up
to apogee.
If we do nothing else, it will stay in this elliptical
orbit, going from apogee to perigee and back
again.
BUT, if we fire a rocket motor when the satellite's
at apogee, and speed it up to the required circular
orbit speed, it will stay at that altitude in circular
orbit. Firing a rocket motor at apogee is called
"apogee kick", and the motor is called the "apogee
kick motor".

7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 85
7. TRANSFER ORBITS

7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 86
7. TRANSFER ORBITS
It is considered economical to reach the synchronous orbit in stages. Moreover, the accuracy
demanded in injecting the satellite into the correct orbit is ensured if a series of maneuvers
around the Earth is performed instead of depending on only one step of injecting it into a
geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) with a perigee (nearest point) of about 250 km and an
apogee (farthest point) of 35,800 km. a rocket onboard the satellite, called an apogee
motor, will be fired on radio command when the satellite reaches the apogee. The rocket
firing will give it enough push to increase its velocity and circularize the egg-shaped lower
orbit.
The point at which the satellite requires minimum velocity changed and therefore minimum
consumption of propellant is determined on the basis of a theory elaborated in 1925 by
Walter Hohmann (1880-1945). He proved that a satellite at the trajectory that connects two
circular orbits in such a manner that it is a fuel-efficient way of transferring from one circular
orbit to another that is in the same plane (same inclination) but at a different altitude. This
principle is adopted into the transfer of a satellite from the initial elliptical orbit into the
geosynchronous circular orbit as shown in the figure below.
7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 87
8. ORBITS OVERVIEW
Altitude classification
- Low earth orbit (LEO)
- Medium earth orbit (MEO)
- High earth orbit (HEO)
Inclination classification
- Polar orbit
- Sun synchronous orbit
Eccentricity classification
- circular orbit (eccentricity = 0)
> Hohmann transfer orbit (from one circular orbit to another one)
- Elliptical orbit
> Geosynchronous transfer orbit, Geostationary transfer orbit
Synchronous classification
> synchronous and asynchronous orbits (around planet Mars)
7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 88
9. ENERGY NEED TO ORBIT A PAYLOAD
Energy needed to orbit an satellite:
Satellites on a 250 km orbit have a velocity of 8 km/sec, i.e. they move 8 km per sec.
To launch satellites in such an orbit, they have to be moved against the gravitaional force
of the plant earth and accelerated to their orbit
For satellites of 1 tons, it means:
- to move the satellite to an altitude of 250 km: ca. 2,4 * 10^9 J = 650 kWh
- to accelerate the satellite of 7,76 km/s: ca. 3,0 * 10^10 J = 8.370 kWh
- Total energy demand: ca. 3,2 * 10^10 J = 9.020 kWh
9.000 kWh is the amount of energy, needed by two families of four persons per year.
It is also the amount of energy which is released by combusting ca. one ton of car fuel,
diesel or oil.
The real energy demand is much higher since both launcher and propellant mass have
also to be lifted and accelerated until burn off.
That's the reason why some 100 tons of propellants are needed and not only one ton.
7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 89
10. ESCAPE VELOCITIES
Escape Velocities



The trajectory of the satellite is with an escape
velocity of V2 = 11,2 km/sec is parabolic. The
trajectory is hyperbolic for escape velocities > 11,2
km/sec. The satellite escapes in both cases the
gravitational field of the earth.
7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 90
11. ORBIT VELOCITIES



7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 91
12. ORBIT VELOCITIES
Orbital Speed:
- A satellite in orbit moves faster when it is close to the planet or other body that it
orbits, and slower when it is farther away. When a satellite falls from high altitude to
lower altitude, it gains speed, and when it rises from low altitude to higher altitude, it
loses speed.

- A satellite in circular orbit has a constant speed which depends only on the mass of the
planet and the distance between the satellite and the center of the planet. Here are
some examples of satellites in Earth orbit:




7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 92
13. ORBIT VELOCITIES
Mission Delta-V Requirements
Mission (duration) Delta-V (km/sec)
Earth to 300 km circular orbit 8,1
Earth to geostationary transfer 10,4
Earth to moon transfer orbit 11,1
Earth escape 11,2
LEO to Earth Escape 3.2
LEO to Mars (0.7 yrs) 5.7
LEO to Neptune (29.9 yrs) 13.4
LEO to Neptune (5.0 yrs) 70
LEO to alpha-Centauri (50 yrs) 30,000
7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 93
14. ORBIT VELOCITIES
Altitude (Km) Life Time
160 km ca. 1 day
185 km ca. 1 week
300 km Ca. 6 months
400 km Some years
> 600 km more than 10 years
> 900 km More than 100 years
36000 km Some million years
7. ORBITS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 94
8.
KEPLERS LAW
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 95
1. KEPLERS THREE LAWS
Kepler's three law's describe the motions of planets.

1ST LAW:
Planets move around the Sun in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus .
(The Law of Ellipses).

8. KEPLERS LAW
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 96
2. KEPLERS THREE LAWS
2ND LAW:
The line connecting the Sun to a planet sweeps equal areas in equal times.
(The Law of Equal Areas).

8. KEPLERS LAW
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 97
3. KEPLERS THREE LAWS
3RD LAW:
The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to the ratio of the
cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The Law of Harmonies)




where T is the orbital period of the planet, r is the mean distance of the planet
from the Sun.
8. KEPLERS LAW
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 98
9.
PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 99
1. LAUNCH SYSTEM FOR SPACE FLIGHTS

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 100
2. WHAT IS PROPULSION?

The word is derived from two Latin words: pro meaning before or forwards and pellere
meaning to drive.
Propulsion means to push forward or drive an object forward.
A propulsion system is a machine that produces thrust to push an object forward.
On airplanes, thrust is usually generated through some application of Newton's third law
of action and reaction. A gas, or working fluid, is accelerated by the engine, and the
reaction to this acceleration produces a force on the engine.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 101
3. ALTERNATIVE WAYS TO SPACE
Instead of classical launch systems:
Possible with current technologies
- Space gun
- Electromagnetic catapult
- Space plane
- Ramjet/Scramjet

Need of (most) advanced technologies
- Space tower
- Space elevator
- Momentum exchange tethers
- Laser propulsion
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
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i s

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y

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d

t o

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d

p
a
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s

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p
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w
r
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n

a
g
r
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m
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n
t .
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c
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t
s
h
a
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n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 102
4. ROCKET PIONEERS

Russia (early 1900s)
- Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
- Orbital mechanics, rocket equation
United States (1920s)
- Robert Goddard
- First liquid fueled rocket (1926)
Germany (1940s)
- Wernher von Braun, V-2
- Hermann Oberth, rocket equation

Wan-Hu who tried to
launch himself to the
moon by attaching 47 black
powder rockets to a large
wicker chair!
Dr. Goddard
Dr. von Braun Prof. Ziolkowsky
Prof. Oberth
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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t
i s

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p
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n
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b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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4. ROCKET PIONEERS
Tsiolkovsky:




9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
Oberth:
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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n
t
i s

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p
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c
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l l
n
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b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 104
4. ROCKET PIONEERS
Goddard:




9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
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p
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b
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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5. BASICS OF ROCKET PROPULSION
Rockets generate gas at high pressure by burning chemicals, and this gas escapes at
high speed through a nozzle.
The reaction to the force used in doing so accelerates the rocket.
The key idea is that the engine and the propellant gases are pushing against each
other: no other medium is needed to be pushed.
There is both, a forward motion of the rocket and a backward motion of the
exhausted gas.
The massive force (action) generated by hot gases firing backward from a rocket's
engines produces an equal force (reaction) that pushes the rocket forward through
space.
A space rocket is an impressive demonstration of Newton's laws of motion. The force
of the hot exhaust gas shooting backward propels the rocket forward. The rocket isn't
moving by pushing against the ground; it can move forward like this even in "empty
space," confirming the essential truth of Newton's laws.

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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p
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b
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d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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6. PROPULSION TYPES

Stored Gas Electric Advanced
Electrothermal
Electrostatic
Electrodynamic
Nuclear
Solar thermal
Laser
Antimatter
Solid Hybrid
Pump Fed
Pressure Fed
Monopropellant Bipropellant
Liquid
Chemical
Space propulsion systems
are classified by the type
of energy source used.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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m
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t h
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p
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d
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c
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s
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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 107
7. TYPES OF PROPULSION SYSTEMS

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
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d
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c
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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8. DEFINITIONS
A ROCKET is a system that provides thrust to a vehicle by accelerating some propellant
and exhausting it from the rocket.




Air-Breathing Systems
- Also called duct propulsion.
- Vehicle carries own fuel;
surrounding air (an oxidizer)
is used for combustion and
thrust generation
- Gas turbine engines on aircraft

Rocket Propulsion Systems
- Vehicle carries own fuel and oxidizer
or other expelled propellant to
generate thrust
- Can operate outside of the Earths
atmosphere
- Launch vehicles, upper stages, Earth
orbiting satellites and interplanetary
spacecraft or
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
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d
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 109
9. DEFINITIONS




9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
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c
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e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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10. TYPES OF PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Piston engines and propeller
- aircrafts and helicopters
- air is accelerated by propellers
Rocket engines
- solid, liquid, hybrid rockets
- The simplest rocket engine has a propellant grain of fuel and oxidizer in solid form
- Liquid propellants are stored in tanks, and pumped into the combustion chamber
- Hybrid rockets use a metered liquid propellant which flows over a solid propellant grain
Nuclear propulsion
- Nuclear thermal propulsion: uses nuclear explosions for thrust
- Nuclear pulse propulsion: typically hydrogen is heated to a high temperature in a
reactor
Electric Propulsion
- Arcjet, Hall effect, Ion thruster, Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster, Plasma, Resistojet
Air-Breathing Jet Propulsion
- Using the atmosphere: pulse jet, ramjet, scramjet
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
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c
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d
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c
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s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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11. TYPES OF PROPULSION SYSTEMS
SOLID
The solid motor is used mainly as a booster for launch vehicles. Solid motors are almost
never used in space because they are not controllable. The boosters are lit and then
they fire until all the propellant has burned. Their main benefits are simplicity, a shelf
life which can extend to years as in the case of missiles, and high reliability.
LIQUID
Liquid motors come in many shapes and sizes: Most of them are controllable (can be
throttled up and down), restartable, are often used as control and maneuvering
thrusters. Liquid thrusters can be broken into three main types: monopropellant,
bipropellant, and cryogenic thrusters. Monopropellants only use one propellant such
as hydrazine. Bipropellants use a fuel and an oxidizer such as RP-1 and H2O2. Cryogenic
systems use liquefied gases such as LH and LOX (liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen).
Cryogenic means super-cooled. You would have to super-cool hydrogen and oxygen to
make them liquids. With each step from monopropellant to bipropellant to cryogenic
the thruster complexity goes up but the performance also goes up.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
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c
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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11. TYPES OF PROPULSION SYSTEMS
COLD GAS
Cold-gas motors have controllability similar to liquids but are the simpler and lighter.
They are basically a high pressure tank with switches which flip between the open and
shut state. They function a little like spray paint, with the contents under pressure
inside, and when the valve is opened, they stream out.
ELECTRIC
Ion engines are vastly different from chemical (solid, liquid) engines in that they are
low thrust engines which can run for extended periods of time. The length of use of
chemical engines is usually from seconds to days while the length of use of ion engines
can be anywhere from days to months.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
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c
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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11. TYPES OF PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Type Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Solid fuel chemical
propulsion
main booster
simple, reliable, few
moving parts, lots of
thrust
not restartable
Liquid fuel chemical
propulsion
main booster, small
control
restartable,
controllable, lots of
thrust
complex
Cold-gas chemical
propulsion
small control
restartable,
controllable
low thrust
Ion in space booster
restartable,
controllable, high
specific impulse
complex
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
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c
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p
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n
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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11. TYPES OF PROPULSION SYSTEMS
11.1 Depending on energy sources
Chemical (always thermal)
-> Solid propellant
-> Liquid propellant (mono and bipropellant)
-> Hybrid propellant
Nuclear thermal
Nuclear electric
Solar thermal
Solar electric
11.2 Depending on thrust level
High thrust (> 1g) -> for launch and fast space maneuvering
Low thrust (10-5 to 10-2 g) -> for efficient space maneuvers
11.3 Depending on gas acceleration mechanism
Thermal -> gas pushes directly on walls by pressure P
Electrostatic -> ions accelerated by an electric field
Electromagnetic -> gas is accelerated by a magnetic field (MPD thruster)
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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n
t
i s

t h
e

p
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n

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c
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n
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t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 115
12. SPACE PROPULSION APPLICATIONS





Launch Vehicles
Ballistic Missiles
Earth Orbiting Satellites
Upper Stages
Interplanetary Spacecraft
Manned Spaceflight
Launch Vehicles
Stage Propulsion
Missiles Satellites
Manned Missions
Deep Space
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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t
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p
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p
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n

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c
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b
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d
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c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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12. SPACE PROPULSION APPLICATIONS
Any rocket can achieve a very high speed if it accelerates for a long time. A conventional
rocket has a hard time doing this because a huge amount of fuel must be carried into space in
order for this to happen. This may make the rocket too heavy to lift off. Conventional rockets
are generally designed to meet the speeds necessary for them to go where they need to go,
and not go much faster.

With increasing speed it becomes harder and harder to gain another mile per hour. This is
because the amount of fuel one has to carry becomes really big, and it becomes difficult and
expensive to lift that much fuel into space. Solar escape velocity is nearing the practical limit
of how fast one can move with conventional rockets.
Mission from Florida (Cape Kennedy) Speed required (km/sec)
Earth to LEO (200 km); 28,3 (low Earth orbit) 9,26
24-h Orbit (35.600 km); 28,3 13,30
24-h Orbit Equatorial 13,65
Earth to GEO (geosynchronous Earth orbit) 26,400 mph
Earth to solar escape 36,500 mph
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
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n
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d

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d

p
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s

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p
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r

w
r
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n

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m
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n
t .
I t s

c
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n
t
s
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n
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b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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13. SPEED VS VELOCITY

Speed:
In science, we define speed as the distance something goes in a second.
Speed = Distance / time
Mathematically, speed is a scalar quantity
Speed refers to "how fast an object is moving

Velocity:
Velocity is not just another word for speed: it means the speed in a certain direction.
It is determined by value and direction
Mathematically, velocity is a vector quantity
Velocity refers to "the rate at which an object changes its position
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
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c
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t
i s

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e

p
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o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 118
14. ACCELERATION AND MOMENTUM

Acceleration:
is defined as the rate at which an object changes its velocity.
if an object is not changing its velocity, then the object is not accelerating.
Acceleration = v / t and is a vector quantity.
A free falling object averages a velocity of 5 m/s in the first, in the second 25 m/s and
in the third second 35 m/s, i.e. time interval is constant and velocity increasing.

Momentum:
can be defined as "mass in motion
all objects have mass. If an object is moving, then it has momentum.
momentum depends upon the variables mass and velocity.
momentum = mass x velocity and is a vector quantity.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
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r
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y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
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n
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b
e

c
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d

t o

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d

p
a
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t i e
s

w
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t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
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e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 119
15. THRUST
The thrust is the amount of force an engine produces on the rocket (and on the
exhaust stream leaving the rocket, conservation of momentum).
The amount of thrust, along with the rocket mass, determines the acceleration.
The mission profile will determine the required and acceptable accelerations and thus,
the required thrust.
Launching from the Earth typically requires a thrust to weight ratio (F/W) of at
least 1.5 to 1.75.
Once the vehicle is in orbit and the vehicles momentum balances the gravitational
force, smaller thrust forces are usually sufficient for any maneuvering.

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
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n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 120
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
16. ESSENTIAL SUBSYSTEMS





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
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r
t
y

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f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
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s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
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m
m
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
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e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 121
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
17. ENGINE AND COMPONENTS
F1 Gasgenerator Cycle engine
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
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m
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d

t o

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d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
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t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
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n

a
g
r
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e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 122
18. THRUST CHAMBER ASSEMBLY (TCA) AND MAIN COPONENTS

Gimbal Joint
Injector
Combustion Chamber
Nozzle Extension
Vulcain TCA
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
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o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 123
19. ROCKET PERFORMANCE
There are several rocket performance parameters that, when taken together, describe a
rockets overall performance:
1. Thrust
2. Specific Impulse
3. Mass Ratio.


9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 124
20. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST



F
THRUST is the amount of force generated by
the rocket.
Rocket engines give part of their thrust due to
unopposed pressure on the combustion
chamber
Thrust is a force
Force is momentum change in time
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 125
20. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST
The figure represents a box containing a heated gas.
The gas particles impinging upon the walls and exert a force upon them.
But the force upon each wall element is exactly balanced by the force upon the
opposite wall element - all forces acting are balanced: EF = 0
No net force results

F1 = Pc x A1
F2 = Pc x A2

F1 = F2, if A1 = A2
EF = 0

F1 F2
A1
A2
Pc
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
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m
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a
t
e
d

t o

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i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 126
20. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST
One wall element is removed now and force F1 remains unchanged.
The force F2 acting on A2 is smaller as before.
We expect a net force of F = P x Ac, if P = Pc - Pa
P is the difference between pressure in the box (Pc) and outside pressure (Pa).
However, the gas escapes through the hole and disappears.
If we want to have an engine, we must somehow create new hot gas in the box.

F3 = F4
F = Ac x P
P = Pc Pa
F = Ac x (Pc Pa)
Pa = Ambient pressure
Pa = f(h); h: altitude; Pa 1 bar
on ground
Pc
A1
A2
F1
A
c

F2
Pa
F
3

F
4

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
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n
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a
t
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d

t o

t h
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d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
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o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 127
20. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST
The amount of thrust produced by the rocket engine depends on:
- the mass flow rate through the engine
- the exit velocity of the exhaust gas
- the pressure at the nozzle exit




9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 128
20. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST
The configuration of a chemical rocket engine consists of the combustion chamber,
where the chemical reaction takes place, and the nozzle, where the gases expand to
create the exhaust.
An important characteristic of the rocket nozzle is the existence of a throat. The
velocity of the gases at the throat is equal to the local velocity of sound and beyond
the throat the gas velocity is supersonic.
Thus the combustion of the gases within the rocket is independent of the surrounding
environment and a change in external atmospheric pressure cannot propagate
upstream.
The exhaust exit pressure is determined by the aero ratio
= Exit area / Throat area = Ae/At
As the expansion ratio increases, the exhaust exit pressure Pe decreases.
The thrust is maximum when the exit pressure of the exhaust is equal to the ambient
pressure of the surrounding environment, that is, when Pe = Pa.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 129
20. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST
This condition is known as optimum expansion and is achieved by proper selection of
the expansion ratio.
Although optimum expansion makes the contribution of the pressure thrust zero, it
results in a higher value of exhaust velocity Ve such that the increase in momentum
thrust exceeds the reduction in pressure thrust.
F = m V
eff
+ A
e
(P
c
P
a
)

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
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m
m
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n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
I
1
= (m + m) V; I
2
= m (V + V) + m V
e
V: Velocity at t=0; V+ V: Velocity at t=t
V
e
:Velocity of the mass added to the exhaust at t= t
The velocity of the exhaust V
e
in the observer frame is
related to the velocity of the exhaust in the rocket frame
v
e
byV
e
= V + v
e
.
I
2
- I
1
= m V + v
e
m
19/12/2006 Page 130
21. ROCKET PERORMANCE - ZIOLKOWSKYS ROCKET EQUATION
Named after the Russian Teacher Konstantin Zyolkowsky.
The only way a rocket may change its velocity in space is momentum exchange with its
part, i.e. the rocket has to throw away some parts of itself in one direction to move the
payload in the opposite direction.





Exhaust gas play the role of parts thrown away. They are accelerated by the rocket
engine and ejected with a high speed in the direction opposite to the direction of the
motion of the rocket.
Assume the exhaust gases are ejected with a speed unaltered relative to the rocket.
(generally met, except for same cases, e.g. motion in the atmosphere).
Veff: effective exhaust velocity (gas speed relative to the rocket)
A mass portion of M is ejected and gives the momentum Veff x M
Consequently, the V of the rocket with the mass M will be changed by V
Law of momentum conservation gives: Veff x M + M x V = 0.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 131
21. ROCKET PERORMANCE - ZIOLKOWSKYS ROCKET EQUATION
The accelerating force is represented, by using Newton's third law, as:

The thrust is express in terms of the mass flow rate (m) and the effective exhaust
velocity (v
e
).
The released burning propellant appears as fast jet and a rocket accelerating in the
opposite direction. Newton's third law can be applied and the decreasing mass can be
taken into account
The Tsiolkowsky rocket equation is

M
0
is the mass of the rocket at ignition and M (reduced by the burned propellant) is
the current mass of the rocket.
The effective velocity (v
e
) is the only parameter in the equation. This simple formula is
the basis of all rocket propulsion systems.
The velocity increases with time as the propellant is burned.

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 132
21. ROCKET PERORMANCE - ZIOLKOWSKYS ROCKET EQUATION
The following graph shows the rocket velocity as function of the mass ratio which is
often written as R = M
0
/

M
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
A larger Veff is
preferable over a larger R.
Veff is a linear term
in the equation, whereas R
is a logarithmic function
and its value increases
slowly.
The contribution of R to
V is therefore smaller
than the contribution of
Veff.
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 133
21. ROCKET PERORMANCE - ZIOLKOWSKYS ROCKET EQUATION
In most cases, the final velocity of the rocket needs to be know and here the
appropriate value is the mass ratio when all the fuel is consumed. Otherwise, the final
mass ratio should be assumed.
The final velocity (V) depends upon only two numbers:
- the final mass ratio
- the exhaust velocity
Surprisingly, it doesn't depend on the thrust, not on the size of the rocket and also not
on the burning time of the rocket.
A higher exhaust velocity (v
e
) produces a higher rocket velocity (V). Therefore, much
of the effort in rocket design goes into increasing the exhaust velocity.
The value depends just on the chemical nature of the propellant.
The most advanced liquid rockets achieve today at best 4.500 m/s. This is close to the
theoretical limit of chemical energy extraction.
To achieve high rocket velocity (V), the mass ratio (M
0
/M) has to be large.

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 134
21. ROCKET PERORMANCE - ZIOLKOWSKYS ROCKET EQUATION
The mass ratio (R) is defined as the ratio of vehicle + propellant mass to vehicle mass.
A mass ratio of 5 means 80% of the initial mass of the rocket is propellant. Cars have
atypical mass ratio of 1.000 (empty mass: 1.500 kg, fuel mass: 40 kg). Most of the
rocket mass is, however, propellant.
The rocket velocity (V) can be much greater than the exhaust velocity (v
e
). The point
where the rocket speed exceeds the exhaust speed is when the mass ratio becomes
equal to e or 2,718.
With a very large mass ratio (R), a very high speed can be attained. A big enough
rocket could, in principle, reach Alpha-Centauri within a few centuries.
The rocket equation shows that after a certain point, increasing the mass of fuel has a
diminishing effect on the velocity gain.
A higher mass ratio would produce a higher velocity, but with diminishing return.
From the graph we learn that a increase of an already high mass ratio leads to small
and smaller velocity gains. There is an asymptotical limit.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 135
21. ROCKET PERORMANCE - ZIOLKOWSKYS ROCKET EQUATION
The term V
eff
/ g
0
is called effective specific impulse
Isp = V
eff
/ g
0
or
Isp = F / ( g
0
) [sec]
Isp is measured in sec, therefore different propellant combinations can be compared
in different systems of measurement:
Although gravity has nothing whatever to do with the rocket propulsion chemistry, it
has entered into the definition of specific impulse because in past engineering practice
mass was expressed in terms of the corresponding weight on the surface of the earth.
By inspection of the equation, it can be seen that the specific impulse Isp is physically
equivalent to the effective exhaust velocity V
eff
, but is rescaled numerically and has a
different unit because of division by g. Some manufacturers now express specific
impulse in Newton seconds per kilogram (N s / kg), which is the same as effective
exhaust velocity in meters per second.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 136
21. ROCKET PERORMANCE - ZIOLKOWSKYS ROCKET EQUATION

Example
Launch of a rocket from the Earth's surface to low Earth orbit. In this case, the orbit
velocity is 7.600 m/s (= V). It is assumed that the rocket expels propellant with a
speed of Veff = 4.000 m/s:



0,85 = Me / Mt
85% of the rocket's initial mass must be propellant to reach the orbit.

Me
Mt
1 - = 1 - e
7.600/4.000
= 0,15
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 137
22. ROCKET PERORMANCE - THRUST AND THE EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERE
The application of Newton's third law to rocket propulsion ignores the effects of
atmospheric pressure and the actual forces involved in producing thrust.
The concept of effective exhaust velocity enables it.
The effective exhaust velocity (v
e
) is that velocity which, when combined with the
actual mass flow (m) in the exhaust stream, produces the measured thrust

v
e
combines the true exhaust velocity with the effects of atmospheric pressure and
the pressure in the true exhaust stream into one parameter.
Process in the chamber:
- The energy represented by temperature and pressure is converted into velocity
by the expansion process it accelerates to leave the nozzle.
- The acceleration force on the gas stream is the reaction of the nozzle wall to the gas
pressure, as the gas expands against it.
- The thrust is mostly developed by the nozzle.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 138
22. ROCKET PERORMANCE - THRUST AND THE EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERE
The thrust equation relates the thrust of the rocket to the actual exhaust velocity, the
pressure in the combustion chamber, and the atmospheric pressure. It allows insight into
some of the main issues of rocket engine design.
The equation is derived by considering two separate applications of Newton's third law:
once to the exhaust gases and once to the rocket engine and the vehicle.
There are two forces involved:
(1) The reaction of the internal surfaces on the rocket engine which accelerates the gas.
- The reaction of the walls is accelerating the exhaust gas.
- Described by the surface integral of the pressure taken over the whole inner surface
of both chamber and nozzle
-
(2) The gas flowing through the nozzle is impelled by the pressure gradient from the
combustion chamber to the exit
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 139
22. ROCKET PERORMANCE - THRUST AND THE EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERE
(2) - At any point in the nozzle, the pressure upstream is greater than the pressure
downstream
- the net acceleration force acting is

where A is the cross-sectional area at any given point and dp/dx is the pressure
gradient.
- This is the force that accelerating the gas through the nozzle.
- The accelerating force is given by
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 140
22. ROCKET PERORMANCE - THRUST AND THE EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERE
The surface integral appears in both equations and can therefore be cancelled. Since the
gas acting on the inner surfaces is equal to that acting on the exhaust gases.
Finally, the thrust equation is given by:
This equation takes into account true exhaust velocity (u
e
), the exit area (A
e
) and the two
pressure P
e
and P
a
.

The first term is the momentum, or velocity, thrust the second one the pressure thrust.
The effective exhaust velocity may easily be derived from the above:


with the thrust given by

The pressure thrust share in the effective exhaust velocity equation can easily be
measured
A
e
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 141
23. ROCKET PERORMANCE THERMODYNAMICIS
The true exhaust velocity u
e
depends on p
e
which in turn is related to the length of the
exhaust nozzle.
For maximum exhaust velocity, i.e. maximum thrust, the nozzle has to be optimized. The
exit pressure p
e
shall be equal to the ambient pressure p
a
.
Mass flow equation is given


Here, the cross sectional area (A) varies continuously.


This equation is represented by the next graph showing flow density vs pressure ratio


9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 142
23. ROCKET PERORMANCE THERMODYNAMICIS



9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 143
23. ROCKET PERORMANCE THERMODYNAMICIS
The flow density first increases as the pressure ratio drops
When the pressure ratio has reached about 60% of the value in the combustion chamber
the flow density starts to decrease.
The convergent-divergent shape of the optimum rocket engine nozzle is the result of a
physical process.
The ideal cross-sectional area of the nozzle for any pressure is given by


The cross-sectional area of the throat (A*) is an important parameter of the engine. It is
an effective measure of the size. The exit area (A
e
) can be chosen by the designer.
The mass flow is determined mainly by A* (throat area), and the pressure (p
c
) and
temperature (T
c
) of the combustion chamber.


The mass flow rate decreases with increasing temperatures (T
c
).

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 144
23. ROCKET PERORMANCE THERMODYNAMICIS
This is because at a higher temperature a given mass of gas exerts a higher pressure.
Thus, the mass of gas flowing is less for a given pressure if the temperature increases.
For multistage rockets in which the lower stages have the main task of developing high
thrust rather high velocity, it may be preferable to use a propellant with high molecular
weight. This will allow a higher thrust to be developed through a smaller throat area in
physically smaller engine.
The formula also gives insight into the problem of throttling the motor. The throat itself
cannot be varied, so the pressure in the chamber must be changed varying the supply
rate of propellants.
Increasing the supply of propellant will increase the mass of hot gas produced, and it will
result in a rise in chamber pressure and a corresponding increase in thrust.

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 145
23. ROCKET PERORMANCE THERMODYNAMICIS

Area, velocity and flow density relative to the throat values as a function of the pressure ratio
Throat
p = p
c
:

chamber
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 146
24. ROCKET PERORMANCE THE THERMODYNAMICIS THRUST EQUATION
The velocity u
e
and the mass flow rate m can now be substitute in the equation

Some manipulations give the full thermodynamic thrust equation:


We may identify three terms:
- Newton thrust related to the mass ejection
- the accelerating force of the static pressure in the exhaust stream as it leaves the nozzle
- the retarding force due to the ambient atmospheric pressure
This equation doesn't contain the terms relating to combustion, the molecular weight
and combustion temperature (T
c
).
The product of throat area and chamber pressure at the beginning of the formula is the
fixed parameter which determines the size and other mechanical design properties of the
rocket engine.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 147
24. ROCKET PERORMANCE THE THERMODYNAMICIS THRUST EQUATION
The main parameter of the rocket engine size is the throat area A*.
The defining parameter of the nozzle is the exit area A
e
and the shape can be expressed
in a dimensionless way as the expansion ratio A
e
/ A*. This depends on the expected
ambient pressure. Typical values for the expansion ratio are:
- first stage of about 10
- high altitude engines of about 80

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 148
24. ROCKET PERORMANCE THE THERMODYNAMICIS THRUST EQUATION


9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 149
25. ROCKET PERORMANCE THRUST COEFFICIENT AND CHARACTERISTI VELOCITY
Two further parameters in calculating the performance are
- thrust coefficient (C
F
)
- characteristic velocity (c*)
The thrust coefficient represents the performance of the nozzle
The characteristic velocity that of the propellants and combustion

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 150
26. ROCKET PERORMANCE THRUST COEFFICIENT
The thrust coefficient is the ratio of the thrust to the product of combustion chamber
pressure and throat area, i.e.

F
R
and p
c
can be measured during testing, A* is given by the nozzle
Using the already know thrust equation


Divided by p
c


A* gives C
F
as based on thermodynamics


It can be used to estimate the departure of an actual engine from it theoretical efficiency.
C
F
is always larger for vacuum (p
a
= 0) than for a finite ambient pressure.
C
F
is max for p
e
= p
a
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 151
26. ROCKET PERORMANCE THRUST COEFFICIENT
The thrust coefficient is a measure of the efficiency with which the nozzle extracts energy
from the hot gas
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 152
26. ROCKET PERORMANCE THRUST COEFFICIENT
Thrust coefficient as function of the
area ration A
e
/ A
t
= , shown for
different pressure expansion ratios
P
c
/ P
a
The maximum of C
F
is achieved for
a optimally adapted nozzle

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 153
26. ROCKET PERORMANCE - THRUST COEFFICIENT
Values of C
F
typically range from 1.6 to 2.0 for nozzles of practical length.
Thrust coefficient depends mostly on pressure distribution in thrust chamber.
The specific impulse of a rocket engine is the thrust of the engine divided by the
propellant flow rate.
Isp is measured in sec, therefore different propellant combinations can be compared
in different systems of measurement.
The thrust coefficient and specific impulse are interrelated. If a nozzle produces a
higher thrust by having a higher thrust coefficient for a particular flow rate and
chamber pressure, the specific impulse of the rocket engine will also be increased.


9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 154
27. ROCKET PERORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC VELOCIT
The characteristic velocity measures the efficiency of conversion of thermal energy in the
combustion chamber into high-velocity exhaust gas.
This is defined by the ratio of the product chamber pressure (p
c
) times throat Area (A*)
divided by mass flow (m).

It has the dimension of a velocity and is based on measurable quantities. The
thermodynamic form is given by


c* depends on the temperature and on the molecular weight and can be used to estimate
the performance of the engine design.
The next figure shows c* as a function of the combustion temperature and the molecular
weight of the exhaust gas.
The parameter is called combustion parameter.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 155
27. ROCKET PERORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC VELOCIT
A typical value for c* is 2.000 m/s. Lox/LH2 engines have a combustion parameter of 16,
while for solid propellants the value is about 10.
The graph confirms the former detection, high exhaust velocities are associated with high
temperatures and low molecular weight
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 156
27. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - CHARACTERISTIC VELOCITY
The characteristic velocity depends primarily on the combustion conditions, and is
therefore a relative measure of the efficiency of combustion.
The rocket specific impulse is given as a function of both c* and C
F
The equations depicted provide insight into the combustion process and losses of the
engine upstream of the throat.
If combustion is efficient, the engine will have a high c*.
A loss in thrust coefficient causes a direct loss in thrust and Isp.
Losses of Isp, due to deviation from ideal performance, can be broken down into
losses of the fundamental combustion process upstream of the throat (c* losses) and
losses in the expansion of the combustion products through the nozzle (CF losses).
If there are losses upstream of the throat due to inefficient combustion:
- it gives a reduced combustion temperature which results in a reduction of c*.
- loss of c* results in a reduced chamber pressure for a given mass flow through.
- a reduced c* gives a smaller thrust and a reduced c* reduces Isp.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 157
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
In thermodynamic expansion, we heat the propellant to turn it into a high pressure,
high temperature gas. All chemical systems use this method.
We allow that gas to expand in a controlled way to turn the thermal potential energy
into directed kinetic energy, which finally produces thrust.
The rocket engine using thermodynamic expansion creates a pressure difference
between the thrust chamber (combustion chamber) and the surrounding environment.
It is this pressure difference that accelerates the gases.
A rocket engine usually operates at what the gas dynamist calls supercritical
conditions (i.e. when the flow velocity is larger than the wave velocity). It means, high
chamber pressure exhausting to low external pressure.
De Laval showed that for supercritical conditions gases should be ducted through a
nozzle that converges to a throat (section of smallest area) and then diverges to
transform as much of the gases thermal energy into kinetic energy.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 158
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
The function of the nozzle is to convert the chemical-thermal energy generated in the
combustion chamber into kinetic energy. The nozzle converts the slow moving, high
pressure, high temperature gas in the combustion chamber into high velocity gas of
lower pressure and temperature.
Nozzles consist of a convergent and divergent section.
The minimum flow area between the convergent and
divergent section is called the nozzle throat. The flow
area at the end of the divergent section is called the
nozzle exit area.
Also called convergent-divergent or CD nozzle.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 159
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION

In the subsonic region (flow velocities less than Mach 1),
the gases are accelerated by decreasing the area of the
flow passage. Continuing the decrease of the flow area
increases the gas velocity until a point is reached at which
the maximum mass flow rate per unit area is achieved. At
this condition, the flow is at the speed of sound or sonic
(Mach number equal to 1). This location is called the
throat of the nozzle, and the flow is referred to as
choked. The ratio of chamber pressure to pressure at
the throat (critical pressure ratio) is approximately 2:1 for
this condition.

From that point on, the flow passage must increase in
area to permit continuing acceleration of the flow in the
supersonic regime (Mach numbers greater than 1).
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 160
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Once the nozzle achieves the choked condition, the
chamber pressure remains constant regardless of the
back-pressure from the flight altitude. If the exit pressure
exceeds the local ambient, it is underexpanded; if it is less
than the local ambient, it is overexpanded.

Selection of the nozzle area/pressure ratio is a
compromise to provide the best performance across the
vehicles flight regime. One way to examine this design
choice is through the nozzle thrust coefficient Cf. The
thrust coefficient is a measure of nozzle performance and
can be used to determine the thrust of a rocket engine as
a function of the throat area and the chamber pressure.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 161
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
For conventional bell nozzles, loss mechanisms fall into three categories:
(1) geometric or divergence loss,
(2) viscous drag loss, and
(3) chemical kinetics loss.
Geometric loss results when a portion of the nozzle exit flow is directed away from the
nozzle axis, resulting in a radial component of momentum. In an ideal nozzle, the exit
flow is completely parallel to the nozzle axis and possesses uniform pressure and Mach
number.
A drag force, produced at the nozzle wall by the effects of a viscous high-speed flow,
acts opposite to the direction of thrust, and therefore results in a decrease in nozzle
efficiency.
The third nozzle loss mechanism is due to finite-rate chemical kinetics. Ideally, the
engine exhaust gas reaches chemical equilibrium at any point in the nozzle flow field,
instantaneously adjusting to each new temperature and pressure condition. In real
terms, however, the rapidly accelerating nozzle flow does not permit time for the gas
to reach full chemical equilibrium.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 162
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION

Experience tells the nozzle designer that a long nozzle is needed to maximize the
geometric efficiency; but at the same time, nozzle drag is reduced if the nozzle is
shortened. If chemical kinetics are an issue, then the acceleration of exhaust gases at
the nozzle throat should be slowed by increasing the radius of curvature applied to the
design of the throat region. The optimum nozzle contour is a design compromise that
results in a maximum overall nozzle efficiency.


With typical values:


9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 163
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION

If sufficient pressure is provided to the nozzle (about 2.5-
3x above ambient pressure) the nozzle chokes and a
supersonic jet is formed, dramatically accelerating the gas,
converting most of the thermal energy into kinetic energy.
The exhaust speeds vary, depending on the expansion
ratio the nozzle is designed to give, but exhaust speeds as
high as ten times the speed of sound of sea level air speed
are not uncommon.
Rocket thrust is caused by pressures acting in the
combustion chamber and nozzle. About half of the rocket
engine's thrust comes from the unbalanced pressures
inside the combustion chamber and the rest comes from
the pressures acting against the inside of the nozzle. As
the gas expands (adiabatically) the pressure against the
nozzle's walls forces the rocket engine in one direction
while accelerating the gas in the other.
M > 1
M < 1
M = 1
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
The radial velocity components cancel and dont contribute to the overall thrust,
therefore the energy going into the radial velocity is wasted.
The nozzle is usually made long enough (or the exit area is great enough) such that the
pressure in the combustion chamber is reduced at the nozzle exit to the pressure
existing outside the nozzle.
There are a number of nozzle expansion types:
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 165
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Nozzle exit velocity:
The term g is the ratio of specific heats of the hot gases, R is the universal gas
constant, and M is the molecular weight of the gases that exit the nozzle. Optimum
expansion of the gases occurs when the exit pressure of the nozzle equals the local
ambient pressure.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 166
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
The conical nozzle is simple and easy to fabricate and provides adequate performance
for most applications. However, it also has off axis exhaust velocity components (2d, 3d
losses) which reduces the efficiency.
The contoured or bell-shaped nozzle provides for rapid early expansion producing
shorter (less massive) nozzles, and redirects the exhaust toward the axial direction
near the nozzle exit.
The plug and expansion-deflection type nozzles are much shorter than a conventional
conical nozzle with the same expansion ratio.
The plug changes the direction of the gas flow from the throat during expansion from
radial to an axial direction. The expansion of exhaust gas is determined by ambient
pressure.
A variation of the plug nozzle is the aerospike, which uses radial auxiliary combustion
chambers around the exit to the main combustion chamber. The contoured or bell-
shaped nozzle provides for rapid early expansion producing shorter (less massive)
nozzles, and redirects the exhaust toward the axial direction near the nozzle exit.
The plug and expansion-deflection type nozzles are much shorter than a conventional
conical nozzle with the same expansion ratio.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 167
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
The plug changes the direction of the gas flow from the throat during expansion from
radial to an axial direction. The expansion of exhaust gas is determined by ambient
pressure.
A variation of the plug nozzle is the aerospike, which uses radial auxiliary combustion
chambers around the exit to the main combustion chamber.
The plug changes the direction of the gas flow from the throat during expansion from
radial to an axial direction. The expansion of exhaust gas is determined by ambient
pressure.
A variation of the plug nozzle is the aerospike, which uses radial auxiliary combustion
chambers around the exit to the main combustion chamber.


9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 168
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Expansion differs three cases:
Pe: Pressure at nozzle exit; Pa: Ambient pressure
The behavior of this expansion process is largely dictated by pressure - both the
pressure of the exhaust itself as well as the pressure of the external environment into
which the gas is exhausted.


9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 169
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Pe = Pa: Perfect Expansion
The flow in this case is perfectly expanded inside the nozzle and maximizes thrust.
Unfortunately, this situation can only occur at one specific atmospheric pressure on a
fixed-geometry nozzle. Nozzle designers typically must select a shape that is optimum
at only one altitude but minimizes the losses that occur at lower or higher altitudes.
Pe < Pa: Overexpansion
When a nozzle is too large and keeps trying to expand the gas flow, at some point the
rocket plume will separate from the wall inside the nozzle. This is called an over-
expanded nozzle. Performance from an over-expanded nozzle is worse than in the
under-expanded case because the nozzle's large exit area results in extra drag. When
an overexpanded flow passes through a nozzle, the higher atmospheric pressure
causes it to squeeze back inward and separate from the walls of the nozzle. This
"pinching" of the flow reduces efficiency because that extra nozzle wall is wasted and
does nothing to generate any additional thrust. Ideally, the nozzle should have been
shorter to eliminate this unnecessary wall.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 170
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION

Experimental photos of shock diamond patterns in an overexpanded (pe<pa) flow
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 171
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
Overexpanded nozzle flow
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 172
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION
Pe > Pa: Underexpansion
When a nozzle ends before the gas reaches the pressure of the outside air, it is called
an under-expanded nozzle. The exit area is too small for an optimum area ratio. In the
under-expanded case the rocket design is not getting all the thrust that it can from the
engine.
The atmospheric pressure is lower than the exit pressure, is called underexpanded. In
this case, the flow continues to expand outward after it has exited the nozzle. This
behavior also reduces efficiency because that external expansion does not exert any
force on the nozzle wall. This energy can therefore not be converted into thrust and is
lost. Ideally, the nozzle should have been longer to capture this expansion and convert
it into thrust.
In vacuum, every nozzle works in underexpansion conditions since it is impossible to
provide zero pressure at the nozzle exit. For that, the nozzle expansion should have
infinite length and with.
However, it makes no sense to increase very much the size of the nozzle since the gain
of efficiency would be cancelled by grow of the nozzle size and weight.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 173
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
Underexpanded nozzle flow
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 174
28. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THERMODYNAMIC EXPANSION

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
Underexpanded Perfectly Overexpanded
Pe < pa pe pa pe > pa
Overexpanded flowpe > pa
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 175
29. ROCKET PERORMANCE COMPUTING
Having defined the thrust coefficient (CF) and the characteristic velocity (C*), they can
then be used to compute the behavior of specific motor designs.
Summary of the equations needed (they are interlinked):


The last relationship is derived from the previous two and shows the real importance of C
F

and c*. Together with the mass flow rate they define the thrust.
The product of C
F
and c* gives the effective exhaust velocity V
e,
the parameter used to
define rocket performance.
The effective exhaust velocity, defined in in terms of thermodynamics and in terms of
parameters measured in the engine. Combustion chamber pressure (p
c
), mass flow rate
(m), the throat area (A*) and the measured thrust (F
R
) are combined to determine the
effective exhaust velocity. These values can be inserted in the rocket equation.
These three equations combined with the rocket equation are extremely useful in
calculating the rocket engine performance.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 176
30. ROCKET PERORMANCE SPECIFIC IMPULSE
The specific impulse is a measure of propellant efficiency, and numerically is the thrust
produced divided by the weight of propellant consumed per second.
The unit of Isp is sec or m/sec.
Specific impulse indicates how many kilograms of thrust are obtained by the
consumption of one kilogram of propellant in one second.
Specific impulse is characteristic of the type of propellant, however, its exact value will
vary to some extent with the operating conditions and design of the rocket engine.
The larger the value of specific impulse, the better a rockets performance.
We can improve specific impulse by imparting more energy to the propellants
(increasing the exhaust velocity), which means that more thrust will be obtained for
each kilogram of propellant consumed.
We can think of it as the amount of thrust one kilogram of propellant will produce for
one second.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 177
30. ROCKET PERORMANCE SPECIFIC IMPULSE
The meaning of Isp can be compared with the fuel consumption of automobiles
within a particular distance, e.g. liter per 100 km.
The rocket equation doesn't include the thrust of the engine. That means, two rockets
with identical mass ratios and specific impulses would achieve identical velocities in
vacuum independently of their thrust (since their characteristic velocities are equal).
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 178
30. ROCKET PERORMANCE SPECIFIC IMPULSE
In rocket engineering the exhaust velocity is almost universally quoted in terms of the
specific impulse which is normally expressed in seconds.
The equation relating specific impulse to exhaust velocity is

where g is the acceleration of gravity.
Multiplied by g (or roughly 10) gives the Isp in m/s.
There are three reasons for the usage.
- Historical
- Measured in seconds is universal in all systems (metric and S.I.).
- Same units in which the acceleration of gravity is quoted.
Impulse is the effect of a force applied for a very short time to an object: I = F dt
; m: mass flow rate in kg/s
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 179
30. ROCKET PERORMANCE SPECIFIC IMPULSE
Isp can be considered as a measure of the fuel efficiency of the rocket, i.e. the momentum
imparted to the rocket per kilogram of propellant expelled.
If the exhaust velocity is high then the propellant efficiency is high
Isp is proportional to exhaust velocity and a direct measure of the propellant efficiency.
Some already discussed equations expressed with Isp:





9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 180
30. ROCKET PERFORMANCE SPECIFIC IMPULSE

C* C
F
*
Isp
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 181
30. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - SPECIFIC IMPULSE
Variations of the chamber have only a
minor influence, i.e. an increase by a
factor of six gives a marginal (ca. 0,1%)
performance increase.

More significant is the influence of the
area ratio as the diagram shows.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 182
30. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - SPECIFIC IMPULSE


Propulsion performance
expressed in Isp of different
flight propulsion systems.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 183
31. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - Typical Parameter Values

Typical values of characteristics properties of rocket engines
Tc
[K]
Pc
[bar]
M
[kmol/kg]
C*
[m/s]

[-]
K
[-]
CF
[-]
Isp
[s]
2000-3900 100-260 2-30 900-2500 15-280 1,1-1,6 1,3-2,9 150-480
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

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f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 184
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
A payload of 6.4 tones is to be injected from a circular low Earth orbit into an hyperbolic
escape orbit with residual velocity relative to Earth of 2 km/s. Calculate the required
Delta- V if the circular velocity is 7.6 km/s.
Two upper-stage engines are under consideration. One uses storable propellants
nitrogen tetroxide and mono-methyl hydrazine, and the other uses liquid oxygen and
liquid hydrogen.
Assuming the data given below, calculate, for the above maneuver, and/or each engine
(a) The mass of propellant required
(b) The actual mass of the propellant tank-assume a single spherical tank containing both
propellants at the mean density, and an areal density of 10 kg/m2 for the tank wall.
(c) The thrust.
(d) The burn time.
Does the use of the cryogenic propellants justify the extra complication compared with storable
propellants?
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

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f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
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n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 185
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
Engine 1 Engine 2
Storable propellants: Cryogenic propellants:
Thrust coefficient of the nozzle: C
F
= 1.9 C
F
= 1.9
Characteristic velocity: c* = 1.731 km/s c* = 2.386 km/s
Mean density of the propellant: = 1200 kg/m3 = 320 kg/m3
Throat area: A* = 10-2 m2 A* = 10-2 m2
Chamber pressure: Pc = 1.1 X 106 Pascal Pc = 6 X 106 Pascal

1. The residual velocity on escape is given by kinetic energy assumption as

9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
2
esc
2
i
2
mv
2
1
mv
2
1
mv
2
1
= =
circ
v x 2
esc
v =
2
7,6 x 2
2
2
2
i
v + =
s km 3,33 7,6 10,93 V = =
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
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r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006
Page 186
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
Engine 1:
1. Using the rocket equation









2. Mass of the tank

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
- = A
p
M
p
M
f
M
e
log
e
v V
(5)
|
.
|

\
| A
= 1 - e x
p
M
v v
f
M
(6)
s m 304 . 3 1,9 x 1731
F
C x c
e
V = =
-
=
(7)
11,13t 1,74 x 6,4 1
304 , 3 33 . 3
e 4 , 6
f
M = = - = |
.
|

\
|
(8)
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
3
m 275 , 9
3
10 x 20 , 1
3
10 x 11,13
Volume = =
(9)
3
m 2,214
3
m 275 , 9
4
3

3
r = -
t
=
(10)
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
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n
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a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006
Page 187
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
- Tank radius r = 1,30 m
- Area of tank wall = 4 x 1,30
2
= 21,35 m
2
- Mass of tank = 21,35 x 10 = 213,5 kg; where the areal density of the tank walls is 10 kg/m
2
3. Thrust:
(11) F = P
c
A* C
F
= 1,1 10
6
10
-2
1,9 = 20,9 kN
4. Burn time:
(12) F = m c* C
F





Engine 2
The same equations applied to engine 2 delivers:
V
e
= 4.533 m/s
M
f
= 6,942 t
kg 6,33
3304
3
10 x 20,9
m = =
(13)
s 1.758
33 , 6
3
10 x 11,13
t = = (14)
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006
Page 188
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
Tank volume = 21,69 m
3

r = 1,73 m
Area = 37,61 m
2
Mass = 376,1 kg
F = 114 kN
m = 25,14 kg/s
t = 276 s
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006
Page 189
32. ROCKET PERORMANCE EXAMPLE
Comparison:
- The use of the high-energy cryogenic combination gives a significantly reduced
propellant requirement by 11,13 6,94 = 4 tons. This saving can be transferred to
payload.
- The low density of the hydrogen and oxygen requires a heavier tank, 376 kg vs 213 kg.
- This is more than offset by the reduced propellant mass.
- The higher chamber pressure in the cryogenic engine gives a higher thrust and a
shorter burn time.
Conclusion: The cryogenic propellant gives a much better performance overall.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 190
33. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - MASS RATIOS
Since the rocket engine is continually consuming propellants, the rockets mass is
decreasing with time.
If the thrust remains constant, the vehicles acceleration increases reaching its highest
value at engine cut-off; for example, the space shuttle reaches 3 Gs just before
main engine cut-off.
The purpose of a rocket is to place a payload at specified position with a specific
velocity. This position and velocity depends on the mission.
The more propellant the vehicle can carry with respect to its dry weight, or weight
without propellant aboard, the faster it will be able to go.
Mass ratio is an expression relating the propellant mass to vehicle mass; the higher the
mass ratio, the higher the final speed of the rocket.
Therefore, a rocket vehicle is made to weigh as little as possible in its dry state.
Increasing the weight of the vehicle payload results in decreasing the mass ratio, and
therefore cutting down the maximum altitude or range.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 191
33. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - MASS RATIOS
Mb = Mpl + Ms:
If rocket consumes all its propellant during firing, burnout mass (Mb) consists of
structure (Ms) and payload (Mpl). Mb is also called dry mass since the mass considered
is without any propellant.
M0 = Ms + Mpr + Mpl = Mb + Mpr:
The total mass (M0) is the mass at the beginning of the burn phase (t = 0) and is equal
to the sum of the mass of the payload (Mpl), propellant (Mpr) and structure (Ms).
Mr = M0 / Mb = (Ms + Mpr + Mpl) / (Ms + Mpl) or Mr = 1 + Mpr / Mb:
Mass ratio (Mr) is total mass (t = 0) divided by the mass at the end of a burn phase.
= Mpl / (Mpr + Ms):
Payload ratio () is mass of the payload (Mpl) divided by the mass of the propellant
(Mpr) and the structure (Ms). It is the fraction that the payload makes up in the mass
of the fuelled stage without the payload. It is wanted to be a large number. It means a
large payload can be launched with a small amount of propellant.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 192
33. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - MASS RATIOS
= Mpr / (Mpr + Ms)
Propellant ratio () is given by propellant mass (Mpr) divided by the mass of propellant
(Mpr) plus structure (Ms). This ratio determines the portion that the propellant makes
up in the total initial mass.
= Ms / (Mpr + Ms) or 1 + Ms/Mpr:
Structural coefficient () is the mass of the structure (Ms) divided by the mass of the
structure (Ms) plus propellant (Mpr). This parameter is independent of the payload
that is launches and is a measure of the efficiency of the booster design. A small value
of this coefficient indicates a good design. It means, more payload can be taken for the
same Mr
Mr = (1 + ) / ( + ).
Mass ratio (Mr) is a function of payload ratio and structural coefficient. From this
formula it is seen the importance to reduce . It is seen also that it is impossible to use
high values of , since they would mean a useless Mr ~ 1.
Typical values of Mr can range from 60% for some tactical missiles to less than 10% for
some unmanned launch vehicle stages.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 193
33. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - MASS RATIOS
Symbol Ratio Description
Mr
Mr = 1 + Mpr / Mb
or
Mr = (1 + ) / ( + )
Mass ration: Initial mass divided by mass at
the end of the thrust period. Want this ratio
large.
= Mpl / (Mpr + Ms)
Payload ratio: Ratio of payload to dry mass.
Want this large.
= 1 + Ms/Mpr
Structural coefficient: Ratio of structure to
the sum of payload structure. Want this
small.

= Mpr / (Mpr + Ms)
or
= 1 -
Propellant ratio: Ratio of propellant to the
sum of propellant plus structure. A high
value is desirable.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 194
33. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - MASS RATIOS
Every kg of additional structural mass takes one kg from the mass of payload, since the
structure of the stage is accelerated to the same velocity as the payload.
Generally, strongly depends on the density of the propellant, since more dense
propellants need smaller tanks. For example, the 1st stage (Lox/Kerosene) of the
Saturn V rocket 0,02.
This is why low density (~ 0,28 kg/m3) is one of the highest disadvantages of Lox/LH2
propellant, since large tanks are needed.
Solid fuel motors need thick casings, so in spite of the high density of the propellant,
their structure coefficients are large as well. For example, for the Shuttle solid rocket
boosters 0,14.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
h
i s

d
o
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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 195
34. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO
The thrust-to-weight ratio of a rocket, or rocket-propelled vehicle, is an indicator of its
acceleration expressed in multiples of gravitational acceleration g.
It is important to note that the thrust-to-weight ratio for a rocket varies as the
propellant gets utilized.
If the thrust is constant, then the maximum ratio (maximum acceleration of the
vehicle) is achieved just before the propellant is fully consumed (propellant weight is
practically zero at this point). So for each rocket there a characteristic thrust-to-weight
curve or acceleration curve.
The thrust to weight ratio of rockets is typically far higher than that of airbreathing jet
engines, e.g.
- Eurofighter: F/W = 1,25; Space Shuttle: F/W = 1,5
However, it is wrong to think that there is sense to increase the T/W ratio to very high
values. If it is high, the velocity of the rocket raises too quickly and aerodynamic forces
proportional to the velocity square) also.
Consequently, loads to the structure would also increase.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
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R&T Management TS1
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34. ROCKET PERFORMANCETHRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO
These aerodynamic forces also decelerate the rocket by the so-called drag losses.
A further reason why extreme T/W rations should be avoided is the rocket mass
reduction during flight (propellant burns). Since the thrust remains more or less
constant (it slightly raises as the rocket leaves the dense atmospheric layers), the total
acceleration of the rocket increases. This means the raise of the g-forces. The forces
the rocket experiences due to acceleration.
G-forces = (a g) / g0; a is net acceleration of the rocket, g local gravitational
acceleration and g0 = 9,80665 m/s2 as standard acceleration.
G-force is equal F / M(t); F = thrust; M(t) = instantaneous mass.
At burnout, the mass of the rocket decreases several times (propellant is several times
heavier than the empty stage and next stages with payload). The increasing g-force
may destroy the rocket. The construction needs to be stronger and heavier to bear
additional g-loads.
G-force is the second reason why very high T/W rations are generally not used.
Common values for the T/W ratios are 1,3 1,8 at lift-off.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
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R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 197
34. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

Rocket vehicle thrust-to-weight
ratio vs Isp for different
propellant technologies.
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
T
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d
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R&T Management TS1
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34. ROCKET PERFORMANCE - THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

Engine
Thrust
(kN)
Weight
(Kg)
Thrust/
Weight
Hydrogen
HM 7B 64.0 155 41.3 Ja
RL-10C 255.7 317 49.1 Ja
RL-50 290 500 58 Ja
Vulcain 2 1350 1800 75.0 Ja
SSME 2278 3177 73.1 Ja
S5.98M 19.62 98 20.6 Nein
AJ-10 118K 43.44 95 44.3 Nein
RD-124 294.3 480 61.3 Nein
LR-91.1 467 589 79.2 Nein
RD-120 833 1125 74.0 Nein
RD-180 4152 5393 76.9 Nein
RD-171 7903 9500 83.1 Nein
9. PROPULSION FUNDAMENTALS
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R&T Management TS1
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10.
ROCKET STAGING
T
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R&T Management TS1
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1. MULTI-STAGING

1. Schmidlap, Johann (16th century)
German fireworks maker and perhaps the first, in 1591, to experiment with staging a
technique for lifting fireworks (and rockets in general) to higher altitudes. A larger sky rocket
(first stage) carried a smaller sky rocket (second stage). When the larger rocket burned out,
the smaller one continued to a higher altitude before showering the sky with glowing cinders.
Although Schmidlap appears to have been the first to fly staged rockets, priority for the idea
may go to Conrad.

2. Haas, Conrad (c.15091579)
Austrian artillery officer who may have been the first to describe the principle of the
multistage rocket. The evidence comes from a 450-page manuscript in the national archive of
Sibiu, Romania (formerly Hermannstadt), dealing with problems of artillery and ballistics, the
third part of which was written by Haas. Between 1529 and 1569 he wrote the above work
which describes and depicts rockets with two and three stages, stabilizing fins, and the use
liquid fuel.
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
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R&T Management TS1
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2. MULTI-STAGING
The mass ratio of a rocket cannot exceed the value 1/, even if there is no payload
onboard.
In practice, it is more efficient to launch rockets in stages, where part of the rocket
structure drops away when it is no longer needed, thus decreasing the amount of mass
that needs to be placed in orbit.
The mass ration R is limited by the available technology. There is a upper limit, i.e.
the mass of the structure (Ms) is about 6-10 % of the propellant mass (Mpr).
Also Veff has limits which is for chemical propellants ca. 4.500 sec.
Dry Mass Ration = Dry Mass at burnout / Total (Initial) Mass
Launcher Stage Fuel Dry mass
(ton)
Propellant
mass (ton)
Total mass
(ton)
Dry mass
ration
Saturn V S-II (2nd) Lox/LH2 38 427 465 8,2%
Ariane 5 H155 Lox/LH2 12,6 156,2 168,8 7,5%
HII Stage 1 Lox/LH2 11,9 86,2 98,1 12,1%
Ariane 4 H10 (3rd) Lox/LH2 1,2 10,8 12 10%
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
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R&T Management TS1
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3. MULTI-STAGING


Dry Mass Ration = Dry Mass at burnout / Total (Initial) Mass
Launcher Stage Fuel Dry mass
(ton)
Propellant
mass (ton)
Total mass
(ton)
Dry mass
ration
Saturn V S-1C /1st) Lox/Kero 130 1996 -- 6,1%
Zenit 1st stage Lox/Kero 28,08 318,8 -- 8,1%
Soyuz 2nd stage Lox/Kero 2,4 23 -- 9,4
PSLAV 2nd stage Lox/Kero 5,3 37 -- 12,5
Dry Mass Ration = Dry Mass at burnout / Total (Initial) Mass
Launcher Stage Fuel Dry mass
(ton)
Propellant
mass (ton)
Total mass
(ton)
Dry mass
ration
Ariane 4 L220 Storable 17,515 227,1 7,7%
Ariane 5 1st stage Storable 9 142 -- 6,3%
Long March CZ-3 Storable 2,4 23 -- 9,4
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
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R&T Management TS1
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4. MULTI-STAGING
The mass ratio R depends on a number of factors, e.g.:
- Amount of acceleration (high for military rockets, low/moderate for civil launchers)
- State of lightweight design
- Design quality
- 0,06 is close to the feasible minimum
Therefore, it is today not possible to orbit an essential payload with a single-stager
V of a single launcher is limited to 9 km/sec, with Veff = 4.500 m/s.
Therefore, launchers have to be staged.
For two-stage launcher:


By doing so, V1 of a two-stager < V2 of a single stager.
However, Vges of a two-stager is higher than V of a single-stager.
It is the mass of the rocket structure what impede to the rocket to achieve higher final
velocities.
By jettisoning part that have become unusable we reduce the useless weight.
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
- = A + A = A
1 b
02
1 b
01
1 eff ges
M
M
ln
M
M
ln V 2 V 1 V V
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
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R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 204
5. MULTI-STAGING
Discarded are the tanks since tanks make up most of the mass of a rocket. During flight
the amount of propellant reduces and tanks became nearly empty.
Engines for the second part of the flight work mostly in vacuum and may be designed
for more effective work than the engines working within the atmosphere. Vacuum
engine have higher expansion ratios of the nozzle.
The rocket may divided into stages (two or more) which work in sequence or
simultaneously and are discarded after the propellant inside their tanks is deplete,
leaving the remaining rocket on a sub-orbital trajectory.
Each stage is actually a standalone rocket.
Each stage may have its one tanks engines.
Only the upper stage makes it to orbit together the payload.
Sometimes, the payload has its own engine and propellant (being an independent
rocket stage). The upper stage may even leave the payload on a sub-orbital trajectory,
and the final orbital injection is performed by the engine of the payload. This is often
done to additionally increase the mass of the payload and to avoid pollution of the
space by debris.
Rockets composed of several stages are called multistage rockets.
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
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R&T Management TS1
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6. MULTI-STAGING
Example:
- One-stage rocket of total mass 100 tons
- Payload is 2 tons
- Exhaust velocity Veff = 3.200 m/sec
- Structure coefficient be = 0,08
- Mass of the rocket without payload is 100 2 = 98 tons
- From which 98 x 0,08 = 7,8 tons is the structure and 98 -7,8 = 90,2 tons is the fuel.
- The mass ratio of this rocket is R 100 / 7,8 +2) = 10,2.
- The final velocity V 3.200 m/sec x ln (10,2) 7.400 m/sec
Such a rocket will never make it to orbit since a characteristic velocity of 9.600 m/sec is
necessary to launch a satellite to LEO.
Now the rocket is divided into two stages working in sequence. The data of the second
stage are:
- total mass with the payload Mt2 = 30 tons and first stage having the total mass of Mt1
= 70 tons.
- Structural coefficients are 1 = 2 = 0,08 and Veff1 = 3.200 m/sec, Veff2 = 3.400 m/sec
- Veff2 is higher due to the larger expansion ratio
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
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d
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d
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c
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e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
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7. MULTI-STAGING
For the first stage we get:
- Mp1 = 30 tons, Ms1 = 70 x 0,08 = 5,6 tons
- R1 100 / (30 + 5,6) = 2,8
- v1 3.200 x ln(2,8) 3.300 m/sec
For the second stage we get:
- Mp2 = 2 tons
- Ms2 = (30 2) x 0,08 = 2,2 tons
- R2 30 / (2 + 2,2) = 7,1
- V2 3.400 x ln(7,1) 6.700 m/sec
The total final velocity of the rocket will be
Vges = V1 + V2 10.000 m/sec
The payload can be delivered to the orbit
Extra stage give the velocity gain of more than 2,5 km/sec
The total mass ratio decreases to 100 / 2 + 2,2) 23,8
If the rocket is divided in three stages of masses 10, 20, 70 tons with analogical
calculations (Veff1 = 3.200 m/sec, Veff2 = Veff3 = 3.400 m/sec), the final velocity Vges =
10.900 m/sec. So, 900 m/sec have been gained and the total mass ratio is 35,7.
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s

d
o
c
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d

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p
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c
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e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 207
8. MULTI-STAGING
The table illustrates the masses which a rocket with a launch mass Mt = 100 tons and
identical Veff = 3.200 m/sec and = 0,06 for stages may deliver to LEO with V
orbit
=
9.600 sec






It is shown that the 4th and higher stages give nearly no gain in the payload mass.
The optimal number of stages depends on many parameters
If the structure ratios are equal for all stages as well as the exhaust velocities, the
following approximation can be used in a wide range of (0 < < 0,4)


Number
of stages
1 2 3 4 5 6
Payload
(tons)
- 2,8 3,4 3,6 3,7 3,7
N
opt
-
Vorbit
Veff x ln (0,366 + 0,54 x
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
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e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 208
9. MULTI-STAGING
This number should be rounded down to increase reliability and to decrease costs. The
optimum number N for different limiting characteristic velocities Vchar (= orbit
velocity) of the mission is tabulated below ( 0,06).





For Vchar < 1,4 x Veff, there is no sense to build a multistage rocket. For Lox/Kerosene
or hypergolic propellants that mean Vchar < 4,6 km/sec. This is the reason why lunar
landings and ascents form the lunar surface to the lunar orbit or the earth are
performed in on stage.
However, a lunar soft landing and a successive launch to the earth need delta-v > 4,6
km/s and are performed on two stages.
Vchar/Veff 1,4 2,3 3,2 4,1 5,1 6,0 6,9
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 209
10. MULTI MULTI-STAGING




1
3
2
M
pl
Total Mass 1: M
o,1
=M
Pr,1
+M
S,1
+M
o,2
Total Mass 2: M
o,2
=M
Pr,2
+M
S,2
+M
o,3
Total Mass 3: M
o,3
=M
Pr,3
+M
S,3
+M
pl
Total Mass i: M
o,i
=M
Pr,i
+M
S,i
+M
o,(i+1)
M
0
= total mass at t = 0
M
Pr
= Mass of propellant
M
S
= Mass of structure
M
Pl
= Mass of payload
M
b
= Mass at burnout
M
R
= Mass ratio

10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 210
11. MULTI -STAGING




1
3
2
M
pl
Total Mass 1: M
0,1
=M
pr,1
+M
s,1
+M
0,2
Payload for Stage 1: M
pl,1
= M
0,2
Total Mass 2: M
0,2
= M
P,2
+ M
S,2
+ M
0,3
Payload for Stage 2: M
pl,2
= M
0,3
Total Mass 3: M
o3
= M
P3
+ M
S3
+ M
pl
Payload for Stage 3: M
pl,3
= M
pl
Total Mass i: M
0,i
= M
pr,i
+ M
s,i
+ M
0,(i+1)
Payload for Stage i: M
pl,i
= M
0,(i+1)
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 211
12. MULTI -STAGING



The figure shows the general acceleration
and velocity profiles during powered flight.
The acceleration and velocity are low at
launch due to the small net force and high
vehicle mass at that time.
Both acceleration and velocity increase
rapidly as the engine burns propellants
(reducing vehicle mass and increasing the net
force).
At first stage burnout, the acceleration drops
and is generally opposite the direction of
motion.
With the second stage ignition, acceleration
and velocity will increase again.
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 212
13. MULTI -STAGING



10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 213
14. MULTI -STAGING




P
a
y
l
o
a
d

R
a
t
i
o

There is very little
advantage to using
more than about
three stages.
10. ROCKET STAGING
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 214
X.
LIQUID PROPULSION
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 215
1. CHEMICAL ROCKETS
The attainable kinetic energy per unit mass of propellant is limited primarily by the
energy released in chemical reactions between fuel and oxidizer.
The attainment of high exhaust velocity requires the use of high-energy propellant
combinations that produce low molecular weight exhaust products.
Currently, propellants with the best combinations of high energy content and low
molecular weight seem capable of producing specific impulses in the range of 400 to
500 seconds.
The rapid combination (combustion) of certain chemicals results in the release of
energy and large volumes of gaseous products.
In ordinary chemical rocket engines, the temperature of the resulting gases can rise
higher than 3.300 K.
Liquid propellants provide higher specific impulses than solid propellants.
Liquid Hydrogen (LH) and liquid Oxygen (LOX) are high energy propellants because of
the large energy release during combustion and the high transfer of thermal energy
into directed kinetic energy of the exhaust stream.
An efficient LH/LOX burning engine produces around Isp = 390-430 sec on average
(depends on its design altitude); SSME: 363,2 @ S.L., 455,2 @ vacuum. Solid propellant
motors produce around Isp = 265-295 sec.
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 216
2. PRESSURE-FED CYCLE (PFC) CHARACTERISTICS
Simplest
Low thrust, low chamber pressure
High pressure propellant tanks require thicker walls
Upper stages, space maneuvers
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 217
2. PRESSURE-FED CYCLE (PFC) CHARACTERISTICS




Pressure-Fed Cycle:
The simplest system, the pressure-fed cycle, does
not have pumps or turbines but instead relies on
tank pressure to feed the propellants into the
main chamber. In practice, the cycle is limited to
relatively low chamber pressures because higher
pressures make the vehicle tanks too heavy. The
cycle can be reliable, given its reduced part count
and complexity compared with other systems.
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 218
2. PRESSURE-FED CYCLE (PFC) CHARACTERISTICS



Aestus
Ariane 5 Upper Stage
With Aestus Engine
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 219
3. GASGENERATOR CYCLE (GGC) CHARACTERISTICS
Simplest
Most common
Small amount of fuel and oxidizer fed to gas generator
Gas generator combustion products drive turbine
Turbine powers fuel and oxidizer pumps
Turbine exhaust can be vented through pipe/nozzle, or dumped into nozzle

X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 220
3. GASGENERATOR CYCLE (GGC) CHARACTERISTICS


Gas-Generator (GG) Cycle:
The gas-generator cycle taps off a small amount of fuel and
oxidizer from the main flow (typically 3 to 7 percent) to feed a
burner called a gas generator. The hot gas from this generator
passes through a turbine to generate power for the pumps
that send propellants to the combustion chamber. The hot
gas is then either dumped overboard or sent into the main
nozzle downstream. Increasing the flow of propellants into
the gas generator increases the speed of the turbine, which
increases the flow of propellants into the main combustion
chamber (and hence, the amount of thrust produced). The
gas generator must burn propellants at a less-than-optimal
mixture ratio to keep the temperature low for the turbine
blades. Thus, the cycle is appropriate for moderate power
requirements but not high-power systems, which would have
to divert a large portion of the main flow to the less efficient
gas-generator flow.
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 221
3. GASGENERATOR CYCLE (GGC) CHARACTERISTICS


Vulcain 2
Ariane 5 Launcher
with Vulcain 2 engine
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 222
4. EXPANDER CYCLE (EC) CHARACTERISTICS
Fuel is heated by nozzle and thrust chamber to increase energy content
Sufficient energy provided to drive turbine
Turbine exhaust is fed to injector and burned in thrust chamber
Higher performance than gas generator cycle


X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 223
4. EXPANDER CYCLE (EC) CHARACTERISTICS


Expander Cycle:
The expander cycle is similar to the staged combustion cycle
but has no preburner. Heat in the cooling jacket of the main
combustion chamber serves to vaporize the fuel. The fuel
vapor is then passed through the turbine and injected into
the main chamber to burn with the oxidizer. This cycle works
with fuels such as hydrogen or methane, which have a low
boiling point and can be vaporized easily. As with the staged
combustion cycle, all of the propellants are burned at the
optimal mixture ratio in the main chamber, and typically no
flow is dumped overboard; however, the heat transfer to the
fuel limits the power available to the turbine, making this
cycle appropriate for small to midsize engines. A variation of
the system is the open, or bleed, expander cycle, which uses
only a portion of the fuel to drive the turbine. In this
variation, the turbine exhaust is dumped overboard to
ambient pressure to increase the turbine pressure ratio and
power output. This can achieve higher chamber pressures
than the closed expander cycle although at lower efficiency
because of the overboard flow.
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 224
4. EXPANDER CYCLE (EC) CHARACTERISTICS


Vinci Ariane 5 (ECB) Launcher
with Vinci
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 225
5. STAGED COMBUSTION CYCLE (SCC) CHARACTERISTICS
Fuel and oxidizer burned in preburners (fuel/ox rich)
Combustion products drive turbine
Turbine exhaust fed to injector at high pressure
Used for high pressure engines
Most complex, requires sophisticated turbomachinery
Not very common



X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 226
5. STAGED COMBUSTION CYCLE (SCC) CHARACTERISTICS


Staged Combustion (SC) Cycle:
In a staged combustion cycle, the propellants are burned in
stages. Like the gas-generator cycle, this cycle also has a
burner, called a preburner, to generate gas for a turbine. The
preburner taps off and burn a small amount of one propellant
and a large amount of the other, producing an oxidizer-rich or
fuel-rich hot gas mixture that is mostly unburned vaporized
propellant. This hot gas is then passed through the turbine,
injected into the main chamber, and burned again with the
remaining propellants. The advantage over the gas-generator
cycle is that all of the propellants are burned at the optimal
mixture ratio in the main chamber and no flow is dumped
overboard. The staged combustion cycle is often used for
high-power applications. The higher the chamber pressure,
the smaller and lighter the engine can be to produce the
same thrust. Development cost for this cycle is higher
because the high pressures complicate the development
process.
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 227
5. STAGED COMBUSTION CYCLE (SCC) CHARACTERISTICS


RD170
Atlas 5
RD170
Space Shuttle
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 228
6. FULL FLOW STAGED COMBUSTION CYCLE (FFSCC) CHARACTERISTICS


Full Flow Staged Combustion (FFSC) Cycle:
Full-flow staged combustion is a variation on the staged
combustion cycle where all of the fuel and all of the oxidizer
pass through their respective power turbines. A small amount
of fuel and oxidizer is swapped and combusted to supply
power for the turbines.
The turbines run cooler in this design since more mass passes
through them, leading to a longer engine life and higher
reliability. The design can provide higher chamber pressures
and therefore greater efficiency. An intrapropellant turbine
seal is also eliminated. Full gasification of components leads
to faster chemical reactions in the combustion chamber and,
as compared to the partial staged combustion cycle, it results
in an increase of specific impulse up to 1020 seconds (e.g.,
RD-270 and RD-0244).
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1



ENDE
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 230
1. POWER CYCLE


RD170 multiple combustion chamber
X. POWER CYCLES
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 231
STAGING





10. STAGING
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 232
STAGING





10. STAGING
T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 233
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 234
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 235
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 236
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 237
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 238
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 239
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 240
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 241
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 242
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 243
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
i s

t h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

o
f

A
s
t r
i u
m
.
I t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i c
a
t
e
d

t o

t h
i r
d

p
a
r
t i e
s

w
i t h
o
u
t
p
r
i o
r

w
r
i t t e
n

a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t .
I t s

c
o
n
t e
n
t
s
h
a
l l
n
o
t
b
e

d
i s
c
l o
s
e
d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 244
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
i s

d
o
c
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I t s

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d
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c
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s
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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 245
5. Fundamentals
STAGING





T
h
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d
o
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m
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n
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I t s

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d
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c
l o
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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 246
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST



T
h
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d
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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 247
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST



T
h
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d
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I t s

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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 248
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST



T
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d
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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 249
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST



T
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d
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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 250
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST



T
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d
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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 251
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST



T
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d
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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 252
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST



T
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d
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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 253
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST



T
h
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d
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R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 254
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST



T
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d
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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 255
5. Fundamentals
1. THRUST



T
h
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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 256
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 257
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
i s

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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 258
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 259
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
i s

d
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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 260
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
i s

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.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 261
5. Fundamentals
THRUST
T
h
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d
.
R&T Management TS1
19/12/2006 Page 262
Syllabus
http://www.google.de/imgres?imgurl=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/n
ozzle.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf3-
2.php&usg=__7GpCYGdP1rT1YtL_-
xlzrSDb30k=&h=145&w=237&sz=44&hl=de&start=141&zoom=1&tbn
id=Kp87GYcH4N93XM:&tbnh=113&tbnw=185&ei=-
kHWTp7WFcPj4QTnsITBAQ&prev=/search%3Fq%3DVulcain%2Bengi
ne%2Bchamber%26hl%3Dde%26gbv%3D2%26biw%3D1280%26bih%
3D798%26tbm%3Disch&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=814&vpy=458&dur=13
28&hovh=116&hovw=189&tx=87&ty=64&sig=107382299456371278
542&page=6&ndsp=26&ved=1t:429,r:4,s:141


http://waowen.screaming.net/revision/force&motion/ncananim.htm

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