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Elsevier items and derived items 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
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Mechanisms of Hormonal
Regulation
Chapter 17
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The Endocrine System
Functions
Differentiation of reproductive and CNS in fetus
Stimulation of growth and development
Coordination of the male and female reproductive
system
Maintenance of internal environment
Adaptation to emergency demands of body
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The Endocrine System
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Hormones
General characteristics
Specific rates and rhythms of secretion
Diurnal, pulsatile and cyclic, and patterns depending
on circulating substances
Operate within feedback systems
Affect only target cells with appropriate receptors
The liver inactivates hormones, rendering the
hormones more water soluble for renal excretion
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Regulation of Hormone Release
Hormones are released:
In response to an alteration in the cellular environment
To maintain a regulated level of certain substances or
other hormones
Hormones are regulated by chemical, hormonal, or
neural factors
Negative feedback
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Feedback
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Hormone Transport
Hormones are released into the circulatory
system by endocrine glands
Water-soluble hormones circulate in free, unbound
forms
Short-acting response
Bind to surface receptors
Lipid-soluble hormones are primarily circulating
bound to a carrier
Rapid and long-lasting response
Bind to plasma membrane
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Cellular Mechanism of
Hormone Action
Target cell
Up-regulation
Down-regulation
Hormone effects
Direct effects
Permissive effects
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Cellular Mechanism of
Hormone Action
Hormone receptors
Located in the plasma membrane or in the intracellular
compartment of the target cell
Water-soluble hormones
High molecular weight
Cannot diffuse across the plasma membrane
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Cellular Mechanism of
Hormone Action
Lipid-soluble hormones
Easily diffuse across the plasma membrane and
bind to cytosolic or nuclear receptors
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Cellular Mechanism of
Hormone Action
Water-soluble hormones
First messenger
Signal transduction
Second-messenger molecules
Calcium
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)
Tyrosine kinase system
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Cellular Mechanism of
Hormone Action
Lipid-soluble hormones
Steroid hormones
Androgens, estrogens, progestins, glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids, thyroid hormones, vitamin D,
retinoid
Diffuse across the plasma membrane
Bind to cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors
Activate
DNA transcription and translation
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Lipid-Soluble Hormones
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Structure and Function of the
Endocrine Glands
Hypothalamic-pituitary axis
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
Pars distalis
Pars tuberalis
Intermedia
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Structure and Function of the
Endocrine Glands
Pituitary gland
Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
Median eminence
Pituitary stalk
Pars nervosa
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The Pituitary Gland
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Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Synthesized with their binding proteins in the
supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the
hypothalamus
Secreted by the posterior pituitary
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Controls plasma osmolality
Oxytocin
Uterine contractions and milk ejection in lactating
women
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
Somatotropic hormone
Prolactin
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Luteinizing hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Beta-lipotropin
Beta-endorphins
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones
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Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
Thyroid gland
Two lobes lie on either side of the trachea
Isthmus
Follicles (follicle cells surrounding colloid)
Parafollicular cells (C cells)
Secrete calcitonin
Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone and thyroid-
stimulating hormone
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Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
Thyroid hormones
90% T
4
and 10% T
3
Bound to thyroxine-binding globulin, thyroxine-binding
prealbumin, or albumin
Affect growth and maturation of tissues, cell
metabolism, heat production, and oxygen consumption
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Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
Parathyroid glands
Small glands located behind the upper and lower
poles of the thyroid gland
Produce parathyroid hormone
Regulator of serum calcium
Antagonist of calcitonin
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Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
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Endocrine Pancreas
The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine
gland
Houses the islets of Langerhans
Secretion of glucagon and insulin
Cells
Alphaglucagon
Betainsulin
Deltasomatostatin and gastrin
F cellspancreatic polypeptide
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Endocrine Pancreas
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Endocrine Pancreas
Insulin
Synthesized from proinsulin
Secretion is promoted by increased blood glucose
levels
Facilitates the rate of glucose uptake into the cells
of the body
Anabolic hormone
Synthesis of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Amylin
Peptide hormone co-secreted with insulin
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Endocrine Pancreas
Glucagon
Secretion is promoted by decreased blood glucose
levels
Stimulates glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and
lipolysis
Somatostatin
Possible involvement in regulating alpha- and beta-
cell secretions
Gastrin and pancreatic peptides
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Adrenal Glands
Adrenal cortex
80% of an adrenal glands total weight
Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis
Adrenal medulla
Innervated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems
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Adrenal Glands
Adrenal cortex
Stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Glucocorticoid hormones
Direct effects on carbohydrate metabolism
Anti-inflammatory and growth-suppressing effects
Influence awareness and sleep habits
Most potent naturally occurring glucocorticoid is
cortisol
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Adrenal Glands
Adrenal cortex
Mineralocorticoid hormones
Affect ion transport by epithelial cells
Increase the activity of the sodium pump of the epithelial cells
Cause sodium retention and potassium and hydrogen loss
Most potent naturally occurring mineralocorticoid is
aldosterone
Regulated by the renin-angiotensin system
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Adrenal Glands
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal estrogens and androgens
Estrogen secretion by the adrenal cortex is minimal
The adrenal cortex secretes weak androgens
Androgens are converted by peripheral tissues to stronger
androgens such as testosterone
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Adrenal Glands
Adrenal medulla
Chromaffin cells (pheochromocytes)
Chromaffin cells secrete the catecholamines
epinephrine (majority) and norepinephrine
Release of catecholamines has been characterized
as a fight or flight response
Catecholamines promote hyperglycemia
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Neuroendocrine Response to
Stress
The endocrine system reacts with the nervous
system to respond to stressors
The stress response also involves the immune
system
Influenced by corticotropin-releasing hormone
from the hypothalamus
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Tests of Endocrine Function
Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
Bioassay
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Aging and the Endocrine System
Thyroid gland
Glandular atrophy, fibrosis, nodularity, and increased
inflammatory infiltrates
Parathyroid glands
Related to alterations in calcium balance
Inadequate intake, malabsorption, or renal changes
Adrenal glands
Decreased clearance of cortisol