Introduction To Electric Drives

ELECTRIC DRIVES
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES

MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1
Electrical Drives
Drives are systems employed for motion control
Require prime movers
Drives that employ electric motors as
prime movers are known as Electrical Drives
Electrical Drives
About 50% of electrical energy used for drives
Can be either used for fixed speed or variable speed
75% - constant speed, 25% variable speed (expanding)
Principle of
Motoring & Generation
Dr. B. Umamaheswari, Anna University 4
Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator
Stator
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator
Stator
Cylindrical rotor
Modern Variable Speed System
A modern variable speed system has four
components:
1. Electric Motor
2. Power Converter
- Rectifiers
- Choppers
- Inverters
- Cycloconverters

(Contd)

3. Controllers matching the motor and
power converter to meet the load
requirements
4. Load

Electric Motors
Types of electric motors presently used for
speed control applications are:

1. DC motors
Shunt
Series
Compound
Separately excited
Switched reluctance motors

Electric Motors (Contd)
2. AC motors
Induction
Wound rotor synchronous
Permanent magnet synchronous
Reluctance motors

Motor Selection
1. Cost
2. Thermal capacity
3. Efficiency
4. Torque-speed profile
5. Acceleration
6. Power density, volume of the motor
7. Ripple, cogging torque
8. Peak torque capability

Motor Selection (contd)
9. Suitability for hazardous environment
10. Availability of spare parts

Cog: Mechanical transmission
Gear
Toothed wheel

Electric Motors (contd)
For position servo applications:
The peak torque and thermal capabilities together
with ripple and cogging torques are important
characteristics for servo application
Higher peak torques decrease the
acceleration/deceleration times
Minimum cogging and ripple torques help to
attain higher positioning repeatability and higher
thermal capability leading to a longer motor life
and a higher amount of loading

Power Converters
The power converters driving the motors are:
1. Controlled Rectifiers
Controlled rectifiers are fed from single and
three-phase AC main supply.

V
c
: Voltage controlled
K
r
: Gain (proportionality constant)

Power Converters (contd)
2. Inverters Voltage and current source
converters are fed from a DC link. The DC link is
generated with either a controlled or
uncontrolled rectifier.

V
c
: controlled magnitude command
f
c
: frequency command

Operation Principle
The rotor of the generator is driven by a prime-mover

A dc current is flowing in the rotor winding which
produces a rotating magnetic field within the machine

The rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase
voltage in the stator winding of the generator
Electrical Frequency
Electrical frequency produced is locked or synchronized to
the mechanical speed of rotation of a synchronous
generator:

where f
e
= electrical frequency in Hz
P = number of poles
n
m
= mechanical speed of the rotor, in r/min
120
P n
f
m
e
=
A modern variable speed system has four
components:
1. Electric Motor
2. Power Converter
- Rectifiers
- Choppers
- Inverters
- Cycloconverters

(Contd)

3. Controllers matching the motor and
power converter to meet the load
requirements
4. Load
Electric Motors
Types of electric motors presently used for
speed control applications are:

1. DC motors
Shunt
Series
Compound
Separately excited
Switched reluctance motors
Electric Motors (Contd)
2. AC motors
Induction
Wound rotor synchronous
Permanent magnet synchronous
Reluctance motors

Motor Selection
1. Cost
2. Thermal capacity
3. Efficiency
4. Torque-speed profile
5. Acceleration
6. Power density, volume of the motor
7. Ripple, cogging torque
8. Peak torque capability

Motor Selection (contd)
9. Suitability for hazardous environment
10. Availability of spare parts

Cog: Mechanical transmission
Gear
Toothed wheel

Electric Motors (contd)
For position servo applications:
The peak torque and thermal capabilities together
with ripple and cogging torques are important
characteristics for servo application
Higher peak torques decrease the
acceleration/deceleration times
Minimum cogging and ripple torques help to
attain higher positioning repeatability and higher
thermal capability leading to a longer motor life
and a higher amount of loading

Power Converters
The power converters driving the motors are:
1. Controlled Rectifiers
Controlled rectifiers are fed from single and
three-phase AC main supply.

V
c
: Voltage controlled
K
r
: Gain (proportionality constant)

Power Converters (contd)
2. Inverters Voltage and current source
converters are fed from a DC link. The DC link is
generated with either a controlled or
uncontrolled rectifier.

V
c
: controlled magnitude command
f
c
: frequency command

Example on VSD application
motor pump
valve
Supply
Constant speed
Variable Speed Drives
Power
In
Power loss
Mainly in valve
Power out
motor pump
valve
Supply
motor
PEC pump
Supply
Constant speed
Power
In
Power loss
Power out
Power loss
Mainly in valve
Power out
Power
In
Power loss
Mainly in valve
Power out
motor pump
valve
Supply
motor
PEC pump
Supply
Constant speed
Power
In
Power loss
Power
In
Power out
Conventional electric drives (variable speed)
Bulky
Inefficient
inflexible
Modern electric drives (With power electronic converters)
Small
Efficient
Flexible
Modern electric drives
Inter-disciplinary (PE, control system, machine
design, sensors)
Several research area
Expanding
Machine design
Speed sensorless
Machine Theory
Non-linear control
Real-time control
DSP application
PFC
Speed sensorless
Power electronic converters
Utility interface
Renewable energy
Components in electric drives
Motors
DC motors - permanent magnet wound field
AC motors induction, synchronous (IPMSM, SMPSM),
brushless DC
Applications, cost, environment
Natural speed-torque characteristic is not compatible with load
requirements
Power sources
DC batteries, fuel cell, photovoltaic - unregulated
AC Single- three- phase utility, wind generator - unregulated
Power processor
To provide a regulated power supply
Combination of power electronic converters
More efficient
Flexible
Compact
AC-DC DC-DC DC-AC AC-AC
Control unit
Complexity depends on performance requirement
analog- noisy, inflexible, ideally has infinite bandwidth.
digital immune to noise, configurable, bandwidth is smaller than
the analog controllers
DSP/microprocessor flexible, lower bandwidth - DSPs perform
faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in single
cycle), can perform complex estimations
Electrical isolation between control circuit and power circuit is
needed:
Malfuction in power circuit may damage control circuit
Safety for the operator
Avoid conduction of harmonic to control circuit

Sensors
Sensors (voltage, current, speed or torque) is normally
required for closed-loop operation or protection
Electrical isolation between sensors and control circuit is
needed for the reasons previously explained
The term sensorless drives is normally referred to the
drive system where the speed is estimated rather than
measured.
Overview of AC and DC drives
Extracted from Boldea & Nasar
DC motors: Regular maintenance, heavy, expensive, speed limit
Easy control, decouple control of torque and flux
AC motors: Less maintenance, light, less expensive, high speed
Coupling between torque and flux variable
spatial angle between rotor and stator flux
Before semiconductor devices were introduced (<1950)
AC motors for fixed speed applications
DC motors for variable speed applications
After semiconductor devices were introduced (1950s)
Variable frequency sources available AC motors in variable
speed applications
Coupling between flux and torque control
Application limited to medium performance applications
fans, blowers, compressors scalar control
High performance applications dominated by DC motors
tractions, elevators, servos, etc

After semiconductor devices were introduced (1950s)
After vector control drives were introduced (1980s)
AC motors used in high performance applications elevators,
tractions, servos
AC motors favorable than DC motors however control is
complex hence expensive
Cost of microprocessor/semiconductors decreasing predicted
30 years ago AC motors would take over DC motors
Classification of IM drives (Buja, Kamierkowski, Direct torque control of PWM inverter-fed AC motors - a survey,
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 2004.
Elementary principles of mechanics
M
v
F
m

F
f

( )
dt
Mv d
F F
f m
=
Newtons law
Linear motion, constant M
First order differential equation for speed
Second order differential equation for displacement
( )
Ma
dt
x d
M
dt
v d
M F F
2
2
f m
= = =
x
First order differential equation for angular frequency (or velocity)
Second order differential equation for angle (or position)
( )
2
2
m
l e
dt
d
J
dt
d
J T T
u
=
e
=
With constant J,
Rotational motion
- Normally is the case for electrical drives
( )
dt
J d
T T
m
l e
e
=
u
T
e
, e
m
T
l

J
dt
d
J T T
m
l e
e
+ =
For constant J,
( )
dt
d
J
m
e
Torque dynamic present during speed transient
( )
dt
d
m
e
Angular acceleration
Larger net torque and smaller J gives faster acceleration
0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
-200
-100
0
100
200
s
p
e
e
d

(
r
a
d
/
s
)
0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
0
5
10
15
20
t
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
dt
d
J T T
m
l e
e
+ =
dt
d
J T T
m
m l m e m
e
e + e = e
dt
d
J p p
m
m L D
e
e + =
Driving
power
Load
power
Change
in KE
A step change in speed requires an infinite driving power
Therefore e is a continuous variable
dt
d
J T T
m
l e
e
+ =
dt
d
J T T
m
m l m e m
e
e + e = e
dt
d
J p p
m
m L D
e
e + =
Integrating the equation with time and setting the initial speed e(0) =
0, we obtain the following:
w
D
= p
D
d
0
t
= p
L
d
0
t
+
m
J
d
m
d
0
t
d
w
D
= w
L
+ J
m
0
d
m
w
D
= w
L
+
1
2
J
m
2
A drive system that require fast acceleration must have
small overall moment of inertia
large motor torque capability
As the motor speed increases, the kinetic energy also increases.
During deceleration, the dynamic torque changes its sign and thus
helps motor to maintain the speed. This energy is extracted from the
stored kinetic energy:
J is purposely increased to do this job !
( )
dt
v d
M F F
l e
=
Combination of rotational and translational motions
r r
e
T
e,
e
T
l

F
l
F
e
v
M
T
e
= r(F
e
), T
l
= r(F
l
), v =re
dt
d
M r T T
2
l e
e
=
r
2
M - Equivalent moment inertia of the
linearly moving mass
Elementary principles of mechanics effect of gearing
Motors designed for high speed are smaller in size and volume
Low speed applications use gear to utilize high speed motors
Motor
T
e

Load 1,
T
l1

Load 2,
T
l2

J
1

J
2

e
m

e
m1

e
m2

n
1

n
2

Motor
T
e

Load 1,
T
l1

Load 2,
T
l2

J
1

J
2

e
m

e
m1

e
m2

n
1

n
2

Motor
T
e

J
equ

Equivalent
Load , T
lequ

e
m

2
2
2 1 equ
J a J J + =
T
lequ
= T
l1
+ a
2
T
l2

a
2
= n
1
/n
2
=e
2
/e
1

Elementary principles of mechanics effect of gearing
Torque-speed quadrant of operation
e
T
1
2
3 4
T +ve
e +ve
P
m
+ve
T -ve
e +ve
P
m
-ve
T -ve
e -ve
P
m
+ve
T +ve
e -ve
P
m
-ve
Quadrant of operation is
defined by the speed and
torque of the motor
Most rotating electrical
machines can operate in 4
quadrants
Not all converters can
operate in 4 quadrants

Torque-speed quadrant of operation
e
T
T
e
e
m
T
e
T
e
T
e
e
m
e
m
e
m
Quadrant of operation is
defined by the speed and
torque of the motor
Most rotating electrical
machines can operate in 4
quadrants
Not all converters can
operate in 4 quadrants

Quadrant 1
Forward motoring
Quadrant 2
Forward braking
Quadrant 3
Reverse motoring
Quadrant 4
Reverse braking
Motor steady state torque-speed characteristic (natural
characteristic)
Synchronous mch
Induction mch
Separately / shunt DC mch
Series DC
SPEED
TORQUE
By using power electronic converters, the motor characteristic
can be change at will
Load steady state torque-speed characteristic
SPEED
TORQUE
Frictional torque (passive load)
Exist in all motor-load drive
system simultaneously

In most cases, only one or two
are dominating

Exists when there is motion
T~ C
Coulomb friction
T~ e
Viscous friction
T~ e
2

Friction due to turbulent flow
o
T
L

T
e

Vehicle drive
Constant torque, e.g. gravitational torque (active load)
SPEED
TORQUE
Gravitational torque
gM
F
L

T
L
= rF
L
= r g M sin o
Hoist drive
Speed
Torque
Gravitational torque
Load and motor steady state torque
At constant speed, T
e
= T
l

Steady state speed is at point of intersection between T
e
and T
l
of the
steady state torque characteristics

T
l
T
e

Steady state
speed
e
r

Torque
Speed
e
r2

e
r3

e
r1

Torque and speed profile
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
speed
(rad/s)
100
The system is described by: T
e
T
load
= J(de/dt) + Be
J = 0.01 kg-m2, B = 0.01 Nm/rads-1 and T
load
= 5 Nm.
What is the torque profile (torque needed to be produced) ?
Speed profile
10 25 45 60 t (ms)
speed
(rad/s)
100
0 < t <10 ms Te = 0.01(0) + 0.01(0) + 5 Nm = 5 Nm

10ms < t <25 ms Te = 0.01(100/0.015) +0.01(-66.67 + 6666.67t) + 5
= (71 + 66.67t) Nm

25ms < t< 45ms Te = 0.01(0) + 0.01(100) + 5 = 6 Nm

45ms < t < 60ms Te = 0.01(-100/0.015) + 0.01(400 -6666.67t) + 5
= -57.67 66.67t
l e
T B
dt
d
J T + e +
e
=
10 25 45 60
speed
(rad/s)
100
10 25 45
60
Torque
(Nm)
72.67
71.67
-60.67
-61.67
5
6
t (ms)
t (ms)
Speed profile
torque profile
10 25 45
60
Torque
(Nm)
70
-65
6
t (ms)
For the same system and with the motor torque profile
given above, what would be the speed profile?
J = 0.001 kg-m2, B = 0.1 Nm/rads-1
and T
load
= 5 Nm.
Ratings of converters and motors
Torque
Speed
Power limit for
continuous torque
Continuous
torque limit
Maximum
speed limit
Power limit for
transient torque
Transient
torque limit
Thermal considerations
Unavoidable power losses causes temperature increase
Insulation used in the windings are classified based on the
temperature it can withstand.
Motors must be operated within the allowable maximum temperature
Sources of power losses (hence temperature increase):
- Conductor heat losses (i
2
R)
- Core losses hysteresis and eddy current
- Friction losses bearings, brush windage
Electrical machines can be overloaded as long their temperature
does not exceed the temperature limit
Accurate prediction of temperature distribution in machines is
complex hetrogeneous materials, complex geometrical shapes
Simplified assuming machine as homogeneous body
p
2

p
1

Thermal capacity, C (Ws/
o
C)
Surface A, (m
2
)
Surface temperature, T (
o
C)
Input heat power
(losses)
Emitted heat power
(convection)
Ambient temperature, T
o

Power balance:
2 1
p p
dt
dT
C =
Heat transfer by convection:
) T T ( A p
o 2
o =
C
p
T
C
A
dt
T d
1
= A
o
+
A
Which gives:
( )
t
o
= A
/ t h
e 1
A
p
T
A
C
o
= t , where
With AT(0) = 0 and p
1
= p
h
= constant ,
, where o is the coefficient of heat transfer
t
t
T A
t
t
t
A = A
/ t
e ) 0 ( T T
T A
( )
t
o
= A
/ t h
e 1
A
p
T
Heating transient
Cooling transient
A
p
h
o
) 0 ( T A
The duration of overloading depends on the modes of operation:
Continuous duty
Short time intermittent duty
Periodic intermittent duty
Continuous duty
Load torque is constant over extended period multiple
Steady state temperature reached
Nominal output power chosen equals or exceeds continuous load
T A
t
A
p
n 1
o
t
p
1n
Losses due to continuous load
Operation considerably less than time constant, t
Motor allowed to cool before next cycle
Motor can be overloaded until maximum temperature reached
t
1

t
A
p
s 1
o
max
T A
A
p
n 1
o
t
T A
p
1
p
1n
p
1s
t
1

t
t
T A
( )
t
o
= A
/ t s 1
e 1
A
p
T
max
T A
A
p
n 1
o
( )
t
o
=
o
/ t
s 1 n 1 1
e 1
A
p
A
p
( )
t
>
/ t
s 1 n 1
1
e 1 p p
1
/ t
n 1
s 1
t e 1
1
p
p
1
t
~
s
t
Load cycles are repeated periodically
Motors are not allowed to completely cooled
Fluctuations in temperature until steady state temperature is reached
p1
t
heating coolling
coolling
coolling
heating
heating
Example of a simple case p
1
rectangular periodic pattern
p
n
= 100kW, nominal power
M = 800kg
q= 0.92, nominal efficiency
AT
= 50
o
C, steady state temperature rise due to p
n
kW 9 1
1
p p
n 1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

q
=
Also, C / W 180
50
9000
T
p
A
o
1
= =
A
= o
If we assume motor is solid iron of specific heat c

FE
=0.48 kWs/kg
o
C,
thermal capacity C is given by

C = c
FE
M = 0.48 (800) = 384 kWs/
o
C
Finally t, thermal time constant = 384000/180 = 35 minutes
Example of a simple case p
1
rectangular periodic pattern
For a duty cycle of 30% (period of 20 mins), heat losses of twice the nominal,

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
x 10
4
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35

Introduction To Electric Drives

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ELECTRIC DRIVES

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES

If we assume motor is solid iron of specific heat c

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