3- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

ER occurs in almost all kinds of eukaryotic nucleated cells.

It a system of hollow network of branched and joined tubules .
Note: 1 ml (1 cm3) of
liver tissue contains
about 11 m2 of ER.

There are 2 patterns

of ER which are:
1) Rough (granular)
ER (rER): covered
by ribosomes.
2) Smooth (agranular)
ER (sER): lacks
ribosomes.
 3- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continue)
Note: Both types may be connected in the same cell.
Also, one type may be changed to the other depending on the need of the cell.
Functions of rER:
1- They are responsible for protein
synthesis due to the presence of
ribosomes.
2- They store the formed protein.
3- Packaging and segregation of the
formed protein.
4- Delivery of the packaged protein:
The packaged proteins are pinched off
from rER, then travel through
cytoplasm as transfer vesicles to fuse
with Golgi apparatus.
5- They share in the formation of the
membranes of Golgi apparatus
through transfer vesicles that
originate from rER.
 3- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continue)
Functions of sER:

1- It is involved in the synthesis of lipids and cholesterol.

2- It is involved in the synthesis of steroid hormones e.g. testosterone.

3- They regulate muscular contraction through the release of calcium

ions.
4- They play an important role in detoxification of drugs and harmful
substances.

5- They have a role in intracellular transport system since it is

continuous with rER and Golgi apparatus.
 4- Golgi apparatus (Golgi body) (Golgi complex)
It was found in most eukaryotic
cells, but tends to be more
prominent where there are
proteins are secreted. ER & Nucleus

The Golgi apparatus is made up

of:
1- A stack of flattened elongated
sacs called cisternae.
The cisternae have: Plasma membrane
i) The immature (cis face) (convex
face): {directed towards the ER
and nucleus},
ii) The mature (trans face)
(concave face): {directed towards
the plasma membrane.
 4- Golgi apparatus (Golgi body) (Golgi complex) {continue)

2- Vesicles: Which may be:

a) Large rounded vesicles
(outgoing transport
vesicles) which are
detached from the trans
face of cisternae. These
vesicles are filled with
protein.
b) Microvesicles (incoming
transport vesicles)
(transfering vesicles) which
are detached from rough
ER. They move towards the
cis face of cisternae. These
vesicles contain the newly
synthesized protein.

c) Intermediate vesicles
which are found in large
number close to the
periphery of sacs.
 Functions of Golgi apparatus:
1) The main function of Golgi apparatus is
condensation, concentration and packaging of
secretory vesicles.

2- It shares in modification of the proteins inside

where:
* Its sulfatase enzyme adds sulfate to certain
secretory products of the cells in a process
called sulfation.
* Its transferase enzyme adds carbohydrates to
certain cell products in a process called
glycosylation.
* Also, it adds phosphorous in a process called
phosphorylation.
glycosylation.
3- It shares rER in the formation of coated vesicles such as lysosomes and
peroxisomes at mature face.
4- It adds continuously membrane to cell membrane where the covering
envelopes of the secretory products close the perforated areas of the
cell membrane after discharge of these products.
 5- Lysosomes
Lysosomes are sac-like membranous
organelles present in all eukaryotic
nucleated cells, considered as the digestive
apparatus of the cell.
They are produced by Golgi apparatus
contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes such
as lipases, proteases, nucleotidases
(ribonucleases, deoxyribonucleases), acid
phosphatases, … etc.
Lysosomes are responsible for digestion of
through one of the following:
i) Intracellular digestion:
Takes place inside the cytoplasm which may be:
phagocytic vesicles (contain solid particle) or pinocytic vesicles
They digest the taken substances by endocytosis in a process known as
heterophagy. The primary lysosomes fuse with endocytic vesicle
(phagocytic or pinocytic vesicles) to form secondary lysosome. The
engulfed material is then digested by the enzymes into small
molecules.
a) Exogenic origin:
They digest the taken substances by endocytosis in a process known as
heterophagy. The primary lysosomes fuse with endocytic vesicle to
form secondary lysosome. The engulfed material is then digested by
the enzymes into small molecules.
b) Endogenic origin : Heterophagy Autophagy

They digest some part of the !!!??

cytoplasm e.g. mitochondria

by a process known as
autophagy. In autophagy, the
cytoplasmic structure is
digested by primary
lysosomes forming secondary
lysosome.
Resulting small molecules
from autophagy or
heterophagy can diffuse into
the cytoplasm. If digestion is
completed, residual bodies
are formed which may be go
out by exocytosis or may be
remain in the cell.
These remaining residuals may be represent an index of cell ageing.
ii) Extracellular digestion:

Some cells can discharge lysosomal enzymes outside the cell to destroy
some surrounding structures. This explains how the sperm can
penetrate the protecting coat of the ovum during fertilization.

iii) Autolysis:
It is a process in which the cell is self-destructed. When cells approach
death, lysosomes rupture in the surrounding cytoplasm causing the
digestion of the whole cell. This action is not accidental.
Functions of lysosomes:

1- Lysosomes are concerned with intracellular (intracytoplasmic) digestion of

nutritive materials.
2- They play an important role in the defense mechanism of the body
against invading organisms such as bacteria and viruses.
3- They can digest injured or old organelles such as mitochondria.
4- They can facilitate the process of penetration of sperm to ovum
during fertilization as the heads of sperms are rich in lysosomes.
5- They are responsible for destroying whole body cell after death.
 6- Peroxisomes (microbodies)
Peroxisomes (microbodies) are membranous bounded organelles that
contain enzymes that catalyze oxidation reactions such as β-oxidation
of long chain fatty acids.
These enzymes include peroxidases (hence called peroxisomes),
catalases, urate oxidases, D-amino acid oxidases, … etc.
Peroxisomes are about the same size, or slightly larger than
lysosomes.
Peroxisome function:
1- They have a role in metabolism of lipids and cholesterol.
2- They have a role in metabolism of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Peroxisomes contain enzymes that degrade fatty acids. In doing so
they produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

H2O2 is very toxic because it is unstable and spontaneously degrades to

produce free radicals.
Fortunately peroxisomes contain the enzyme called catalase that
degrades hydrogen peroxide to the less dangerous oxygen and water.
catalase
(H O )2
2 2 O2 + 2(H2O)
3- They share in breakdown of purines and pyrimidines.
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‫جميعا بالتوفيق والتفوق‬

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