Cytoplasmic inclusions

1- Stored food
a- Carbohydrates: They are stored as glycogen inside
certain cells such as liver and muscle cells. Glycogen
appears in two forms:
i- Alpha (α) glycogen particles which appear as
aggregations of rosette-shaped particles.
ii- Beta (β) glycogen particles which appear as single
granules as in muscle cells.
b- Lipids: They stored as small or large globules in
fat cells of adipose connective tissue.
2- Secretory granules
The secretory granules (vesicles) contain protein
secretions in the form of enzymes or hormones.
 Cytoplasmic inclusions (continue)
3- Colored pigments
a- Exogenous pigments:
They come from the outside and accumulated in the
i- Carotene pigments: They present in certain
cells as:
vegetables as carrots and tomatoes and may cause
yellow coloration of the skin when used in huge
amounts due to deposition of carotene under the
ii- Dust and carbon particles: They may be inhaled
skin.
and phagocytozed by phagocytic cells which can be
seen
iii- in lungs Some
Minerals: as black pigmentation.
minerals as silver and lead may
enter the body through the skin, digestive or
respiratory systems. They may enter the vital cells
and
vi- may cause
Tattoo silver
marks: It or lead
may bepoisoning.
introduced by special
needles for draying on skin and may be
phagocytozed by macrophages and cause
pigmentation of the skin.
 Cytoplasmic inclusions (continue)

3- Colored pigments (continue)

b- Endogenous pigments:
They are synthesized by the cells as:
i- Melanin pigments: These pigments are formed by
melanocytes. They cause pigmentation of hair, skin
and choroid.
ii- Hemoglobin: It is present in RBCs and responsible
for carrying O2 to the cells and CO2 to the lungs.
iii- Lipofuscin: It is brown pigment that is present in
nerve and cardiac muscle cells. This pigment is
accumulated of non-digested lysosomes. It increased
with age. 4- Crystals
They are inorganic substances in the form of
calcium salts such as calcium oxalate, calcium
carbonate and calcium sulphate. In addition, there
are salts of zinc, magnesium and copper.
 Nucleic acids
DNA and RNA are the main types of
nucleic acid. A nucleotide

They are composed of repeated units

called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide is composed of:
1- A nitrogenous base,
2- A pentose sugar and
3- A phosphate group.
The nitrogenous base may be:
i- Pyrimidines:
They comprise i) Pyrimidine
Cytosine (C),
Thymine (T) and
Uracil (U).
ii- Purines:
ii) Purine
They comprise
Adenine (A) and
Guanine (G). The nitrogenous bases of DNA
& RNA
 Both DNA and RNA contain adenine and guanine (purine bases) and
cytosine (pyrimidine bases).
 Thymine is found in DNA while uracil is found in RNA.
 There are two major pentoses in the nucleic acids: deoxyribose in
DNA and ribose in RNA.
 The phosphate group is found in the nucleotide of both DNA and
RNA.
 RNA is usually a single-stranded, whereas DNA is usually a double-
stranded helix.
In DNA, the nitrogenous bases of the two strands are connected
together via hydrogen bonds.

Adenine (A) binds to thymine (T) through two hydrogen bonds while
cytosine (C) binds to guanine (G) by three hydrogen bonds.

The sequence of a nucleic acid is usually read from 5' (the end that has
the phosphate group) to 3' (the end which has not phosphate group).

The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions i.e. 5' end of one
strand is opposite 3' end of the other strand.
 A single A single A double
strand of strand of strand of
DNA RNA DNA

or T or U

3
or T or U
Nucleotide
s
or T or U
DNA is found mainly in the nucleus. Very small amount is found in the
mitochodria.
RNA is formed in the nucleus and pass to the cytoplasm carrying the
informations about the structure of protein which will be synthesized in
the ribosomes.
There are different types of RNA; the most famous of them are
messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA
(rRNA).
NOTES
Genes Enzymes Metabolism

Transcription Translation
DNA RNA Protein

DNA sequence RNA sequence amino acid sequence

Triplet sequence in DNA Codon in mRNA Amino acid in protein

(TAC) (AUG) (Met.)
Replication is the
copying of DNA
into DNA.

Transcription is
the copying of DNA
sequence into RNA.

Translation is the
copying of RNA
sequence into
protein.
 Triplet sequence in DNA is the genetic word called
codon.
A trilet sequence of nucleotides (CAT) in a
polynucleotide (i.e. 3 nucleotides) equal to 1 codon
which again equal to 1 amino acid.

The Size of human genome is ≈ 3,000,000,000 base

pairs ≈ 500,000,000 possible codons (words or amino
acids).
Humans, mice and indeed all mammals have roughly
the same number of nucleotides in their genomes
(about 3 billion base pairs).
 ‫لوحة الشرف‬
‫‪ -1‬آيه فوزى سيد أحمد خلف‬
‫‪ -2‬بشرى صلح عبد الحميد محمود اسماعيل‬
‫‪ -3‬محمد ابراهيم رزق حشيش‬
‫‪ -4‬آيه حسن فائق عبد الحميد محمود‬
‫‪ -5‬حسين مؤنس حسين محمود شريف‬
‫‪ -6‬محمد مصطفى حنفى محمود‬
‫‪ -7‬محمود صلح محمود عبد البارى‬
‫‪ -8‬منة ال ماجد محمود سامى عقل‬
‫مع أرق تحياتى وأمنياتى لكم‬
‫جميعا بالتوفيق والتفوق‬

‫ا‪.‬د‪ .‬شــــبل شــــعلن‬