CYTOGENETICS

Cell division
There are two types of cell divisions which are
mitosis and meiosis.
Differences between mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
It is an indirect division. It is a reduction division.
It occurs in somatic cells. It occurs in germ cells of testis
and ovary.
It gives 2 daughter cells areIt gives 4 daughter cells are
produced with diploid number ofproduced with haploid number of
chromosomes (46). chromosomes (23).
No crossing over takes place. Crossing over may occur between
the homologous chromosomes.
The cell cycle
 The cell cycle
There are two main stages in the cell cycle:
A) Interphase
(intermediate non-
mitotic phase)
G1 phase,
S phase,
G2 phase
B) Mitosis (M) phase
Mitosis (nuclear
division)
Prophase,
Metaphase,
Anaphase and
Telophase.
Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)
 The cell cycle
I) Interphase:
Interphase has three big phases which are:
1) G1 phase
The cytoplasm grows in size due to protein
synthesis
At this time, chromosome (2n) are called
chromosomes of interphase which are unduplicated
(unreplicated) chromosomes .
Usually, G1 is the longest period of the cell cycle.
However, in some embryonic cells that are rapidly
divided, G1 might only last a few minutes i.e. very
short.
Some cells, like nerve cells never leave G1 and this
is sometimes called a G0 state (phase).
G1 prepares the cell to undergo the next stage (S
phase).
 I) Interphase: (continue)

2) S phase (the synthesis phase):

All chromosomes are duplicated (replicated)
through duplication of DNA and new proteins
synthesized to assemble with new DNA forming
new chromosomes.
So, at the end of S phase, the entire cell’s DNA is
duplicated resulting in 4 copies of each gene
instead of the normal 2 in a diploid cell.
3) G2 phase
It is a very short period of time which lies between
the S phase and the beginning of the next mitosis
Each pair of the identical chromatids become
joined together at the centromere to form the
chromosomes of the next phase i.e. mitosis phase
Also, centrioles are self-duplicated
 II) Mitosis (M) phase
a) Mitosis (nuclear division):
It is a process of distributing the duplicated DNA
equally to the two new nuclei.
It is divided into 4 phases (stages) which are
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
1- Prophase
The chromatin threads become shorter, thicker,
more coiled and changed into chromosomes that
are visible. Each prophase chromosome consists of
a pair of identical sister chromatids joined at the
centromere
The nucleolus or nucleoli have disappeared.
The nuclear envelope (membrane) degrades in the
later prophase into small vesicles, which can be
reused for synthesis of new nuclear membrane in
the new formed cells.
a) Mitosis (nuclear division) (continue)
1- Prophase (continue)
Paired centrioles (centrosomes) which have
duplicated in the interphase, migrate to the
opposite poles of the cell. As the centrosomes
move apart, the mitotic spindles are formed. The
mitotic spindles are formed from:
The spindle fibers: They are numerous
microtubules which connect paired centrioles
together. The spindle microtubules elongate as the
centrioles move further away.
The asters: At the same time a group of
cytoplasmic microtubules are formed which radiate
in a star like pattern away from paired centrioles
in an area known as micro-tubular organizing
center (MTOC). The cytoplasmic micro tubules
elongate the formed mitotic spindle.
a) Mitosis (nuclear
division) (continue)
1- Prophase (continue)
2- Metaphase
It is characterized by
the equatorial plate
(plane) which is
formed along the
midline of the cell
between the opposite
poles.
The chromosomes
reach to the maximum
thickening and coiling
– are moved and
arranged with their
centromeres at this
plate
2- Metaphase (continue)
Each chromosome
appears to consist of
two identical
longitudinal strands
called sister
chromatids which are
attached together
only at a point called
centromere.
At centromere there are two protein rounded
bodies called kinetochores. These kinetochores
form another type of microtubules called
chromosomal microtubules.
These microtubules of the mitotic spindle which
attached at the kinetochores will cause the
separation of the daughter chromosomes
3- Anaphase
It is characterized by
movement.
It begins when paired
centromeres of each
daughter chromosome
move apart.

Sister chromatids split apart into separate

chromosomes and move towards opposite poles
Because microtubules are attached to the
kinetochores at centromeres, the chromosomes
move
With incontinuous
a V-shaped shortage of microtubules,
chromosomes approach to the opposite poles of
the cell
Simultaneously, the poles of the cell move farther
apart causing elongation of the cell.
4- Telophase
It begins after the
chromosomal
movement stops
The identical sets of
chromosomes uncoil
and revert to the long,
thin, thread-like
chromatin form
Nucleolus or nucleoli, nuclear envelope and the
nuclear sap are now formed in order to form the
two nuclei of the new daughter cells
The new nuclear envelope was formed around the
chromosomes from the fragments of the parent
cell’s nuclear envelope and portions of the
endomembrane system.
The cleavage furrow begins to be formed at the
equatorial plate
b) Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)
It may begin during telophase or anaphase and
ends with telophase
The cytoplasm begins to divide around the two
new nuclei forming two separate daughter cells of
equal size
This is achieved by progressive constriction at the
cleavage furrow until it is cleaved into daughter
cells
The mitotic spindle breaks-up
When cytokinesis is completed, interphase begins
and a new cell cycle starts.
Interphase Prophase Prometaphase

Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Meiosis Prophase I

Meiosis I

Metaphase Anaphase I Telophase I

I

Meiosis II Prophase II Metaphase II Binary fission

Telophase II Telophase II
 Gametogenesis (formation of gametes)
1) Spermatogenesis 2) Oogenesis
Primordial Primordial
I- Multiplication phase 2n germ cell
germ cell 2n
By repeated mitotic cell division
(i.e. by mitosis)
2n 2n

Spermatogonium Oogonium

II- Growth phase

By growing

2n 1ry spermatocyte 1ry oocyte 2n

1st meiotic division III- Maturation phase 1st meiotic division

By meiosis
1st polar
2ry spermatocyte 2ry oocyte n body n
2 nd
meiotic division 2nd meiotic division
Spermatid Mature n
n
ovum
2 polar bodies
Spermatozoon
2nd polar body
So, each primary spermatocyte (or spermatogonium) gives four
sperms.
Also, each primary oocyte (or oogonium) gives one ovum (egg) and
three polar bodies.
The formed three polar bodies are degenerated (disintegrated).
At puberty, a male will produce
approximately 1000 sperm per second i.e.
30 billions/year.
Each ejaculation should contain 200-300
million sperms.
When the sperms are formed, they are
moved into the epididymis where they
become mature then stored. Neck

From puberty of a female to menopause, Tail

one egg is normally formed per month.

Fertilization
It the fusion of two haploid gametes
(sperm and egg) to produce a diploid Mature
zygote. human
sperm
 Sequence of fertilization
1- The acrosomes of thousands of sperms release their
enzymes that destroy the protective barrier (a gelatinous
material) around the ovum and clear a pathway (is called
fertilization pathway) for other sperms to follow.
2- At the point of contact between the sperms and the ovum,
the egg surface produces a conical projection known as the
entrance.
3- Although thousands of sperms work to clear the
fertilization pathway, only one sperm actually enters the
ovum. This successful sperm binds with a receptor on the cell
membrane of the ovum. So, the successful sperm is engulfed
and enter the ovum..
4- A biochemical changes occur that inhibit other sperms
from penetration.
5- A change in the surface layer of the egg that preventing
the entrance of other sperms.
Note:
During fertilization, the head and the middle piece (midpiece)
of the sperm pass into the cytoplasm of the ovum while the
tail is cut off and remains outside.
 Embryonic development
The embryonic development of any animal starts
from the fertilized egg (zygote) which usually
passes through three main stages which are:
1) Cleavage, 2) Gastrulation and
3) Organ formation (organogenesis).
1) Cleavage:
After fertilization, the zygote divides repeatedly
by a series of mitotic divisions.

Zygote vertical 2-blastomere stage

at right angle to the horizontal
1st division 4-blastomere stage

double vertical
8-blastomere stage 16-blastomere stage
double horizontal
32-blastomere stage (morula)

64-blastomere stage 128-blastomere stage

A blastula
 The blastula
@ It is a hollow structure formed at the end of
cleavage process.
@ Its wall is consisted of a single layer of cells.
These cells are differentiated into micromeres at
the animal pole and macromeres at the vegetal
pole.
@ The fluid filled cavity in its center is termed
blastocoel.
This blastocoel is not connected to the exterior.
 2) Gastrulation

@TheItgastrula
is an elongated structure formed at the end of
gastrulation process by flattening and invagination of
macromeres of blastula.
Invagination continues until the macromeres come in direct
contact with micromeres.
So, the blastocoel is disappeared while a new cavity is
formed.
@ Its wall is formed from a double layers of cells.
The outer layer which is formed from micromeres (is known
as the ectoderm) while the inner layer is formed from the
macromeres (the endoderm forms).
@ It has a cavity that called archenteron which is connected
to the exterior through an opening called a blastopore.
 3) Organ
formation
(organogenesis)
:
 ‫لوحة الشرف‬
‫آيه فوزى سيد أحمد خلف ‪1-‬‬
‫بشرى صلح عبد الحميد محمود اسماعيل ‪2-‬‬
‫محمد ابراهيم رزق حشيش ‪3-‬‬
‫آيه حسن فائق عبد الحميد محمود ‪4-‬‬
‫حسين مؤنس حسين محمود شريف ‪5-‬‬
‫محمد مصطفى حنفى محمود ‪6-‬‬
‫محمود صلح محمود عبد البارى ‪7-‬‬
‫منة ال ماجد محمود سامى عقل ‪8-‬‬
‫مع أرق تحياتى وأمنياتى لكم‬
‫جميعا بالتوفيق والتفوق‬

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