Baseband Modulation

and Demodulation
Digital Communication
Elektro Diponegoro
Wahyul Amien Syafei
wasyafei@undip.ac.id
3
Last time we talked about:
Transforming the information source to a
form compatible with a digital system
Sampling
Aliasing
Quantization
Uniform and Non-uniform
Baseband modulation
Binary pulse modulation
M-ary pulse modulation
M-PAM (M-ary Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
Formatting and Transmission of Baseband Signal








Information (data) rate:
Symbol rate :
For real time transmission:
Sampling at rate

(sampling time=Ts)
Quantizing each sampled
value to one of the
L levels in quantizer.
Encoding each q. value to
bits
(Data bit duration Tb=Ts/l)
Encode
Pulse
modulate Sample Quantize
Pulse waveforms
(baseband signals)
Bit stream
(Data bits)
Format
Digital info.
Textual
info.
Analog
info.
source
Mapping every data bits to a
symbol out of M symbols and transmitting
a baseband waveform with duration T
s s
T f / 1 =
L l
2
log =
M m
2
log =
[bits/sec] / 1
b b
T R =
ec] [symbols/s / 1 T R =
mR R
b
=

Quantization example
t
Ts: sampling time
x(nTs): sampled values
xq(nTs): quantized values
boundaries
Quant. levels
111 3.1867
110 2.2762
101 1.3657
100 0.4552
011 -0.4552
010 -1.3657
001 -2.2762
000 -3.1867
PCM
codeword
110 110 111 110 100 010 011 100 100 011
PCM sequence
amplitude
x(t)
Example of M-ary PAM
0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb 6Tb
0 Ts 2Ts
0 T 2T 3T
2.2762 V 1.3657 V
1 1 0 1 0 1
-B
B
T
01
3B
T
T
-3B
T
00
10
1
A.
T
0
T
-A.
Assuming real time tr. and equal energy per tr. data bit for
binary-PAM and 4-ary PAM:
4-ary: T=2Tb and Binay: T=Tb


4-ary PAM
(rectangular pulse)
Binary PAM
(rectangular pulse)
11
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T
2 2
10B A =
Today we are going to talk about:
Receiver structure
Demodulation (and sampling)
Detection
First step for designing the receiver
Matched filter receiver
Correlator receiver
Vector representation of signals (signal
space), an important tool to facilitate
Signals presentations, receiver structures
Detection operations
Demodulation and Detection



Major sources of errors:
Thermal noise (AWGN)
disturbs the signal in an additive fashion (Additive)
has flat spectral density for all frequencies of interest (White)
is modeled by Gaussian random process (Gaussian Noise)
Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Due to the filtering effect of transmitter, channel and receiver,
symbols are smeared.
Format
Pulse
modulate
Bandpass
modulate
Format Detect
Demod.
& sample
) (t s
i
) (t g
i
i
m
i
m
) (t r ) (T z
channel
) (t h
c
) (t n
transmitted symbol
estimated symbol
M i , , 1 =
M-ary modulation
Example: Impact of the channel
) 75 . 0 ( 5 . 0 ) ( ) ( T t t t h
c
= o o
Example: Impact of the channel
Receivers Job
Demodulation and Sampling:
Waveform recovery and preparing the
received signal for detection:
Improving the signal power to the noise power
(SNR) using matched filter
Reducing ISI using equalizer
Sampling the recovered waveform
Detection:
Estimate the transmitted symbol based on the
received sample
Receiver Structure
Frequency
down-conversion
Receiving
filter
Equalizing
filter
Threshold
comparison
For bandpass signals
Compensation for
channel induced ISI
Baseband pulse
(possibly distored)
Sample
(test statistic)
Baseband pulse
Received waveform
Step 1 waveform to sample transformation Step 2 decision making
) (t r
) (T z
i
m
Demodulate & Sample Detect
Baseband and Bandpass
Bandpass model of detection process is
equivalent to baseband model because:
The received bandpass waveform is first
transformed to a baseband waveform.
Equivalence theorem:
Performing bandpass linear signal processing
followed by heterodying the signal to the
baseband, yields the same results as heterodying
the bandpass signal to the baseband , followed by
a baseband linear signal processing.
Steps in Receiver Design
Find optimum solution for receiver design with
the following goals:
1. Maximize SNR
2. Minimize ISI
Steps in design:
Model the received signal
Find separate solutions for each of the goals.
First, we focus on designing a receiver which
maximizes the SNR.




Design the Receiver Filter to
Maximize the SNR
Model the received signal



Simplify the model:
Received signal in AWGN
) (t h
c
) (t s
i
) (t n
) (t r
) (t n
) (t r
) (t s
i
Ideal channels

) ( ) ( t t h
c
o =
AWGN
AWGN
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t n t h t s t r
c i
+ - =
) ( ) ( ) ( t n t s t r
i
+ =
Matched Filter Receiver
Problem:
Design the receiver filter such that the SNR is
maximized at the sampling time when
is transmitted.
Solution:
The optimum filter, is the Matched Filter, given by



which is the time-reversed and delayed version of the conjugate of
the transmitted signal
) (t h
) ( ) ( ) (
*
t T s t h t h
i opt
= =
) 2 exp( ) ( ) ( ) (
*
fT j f S f H f H
i opt
t = =
M i t s
i
,..., 1 ), ( =
T 0 t
) (t s
i
T 0 t
) ( ) ( t h t h
opt
=
Example of Matched Filter
T t T t T t 0 2T
) ( ) ( ) ( t h t s t y
opt i
- =
2
A
) (t s
i
) (t h
opt
T t T t T t 0 2T
) ( ) ( ) ( t h t s t y
opt i
- =
2
A
) (t s
i
) (t h
opt
T/2 3T/2 T/2 T T/2
2
2
T A

T
A
T
A
T
A
T
A
T
A
T
A
Properties of the matched filter
1. The Fourier transform of a matched filter output with the matched
signal as input is, except for a time delay factor, proportional to the
ESD of the input signal.


2. The output signal of a matched filter is proportional to a shifted
version of the autocorrelation function of the input signal to which
the filter is matched.


3. The output SNR of a matched filter depends only on the ratio of the
signal energy to the PSD of the white noise at the filter input.



4. Two matching conditions in the matched-filtering operation:
spectral phase matching that gives the desired output peak at time T.
spectral amplitude matching that gives optimum SNR to the peak value.

) 2 exp( | ) ( | ) (
2
fT j f S f Z t =
s s s
E R T z T t R t z = = = ) 0 ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 /
max
0
N
E
N
S
s
T
=
|
.
|

\
|
Correlator Receiver
The matched filter output at the sampling
time, can be realized as the correlator
output.
> =< =
- =
}
) ( ), ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
*
0
t s t r d s r
T r T h T z
i
T
opt
t t t
Implementation of Matched Filter
Receiver
) ( ) ( t T s t r z i
i
- =
-
M i ,..., 1 =
) ,..., , ( )) ( ),..., ( ), ( (
2 1 2 1 M M
z z z T z T z T z = = z
(
(
(

M
z
z

1
z =
) (t r
) (
1
T z
) (
*
1
t T s
) (
*
t T s
M

) (T z
M
z
Bank of M matched filters
Matched filter output:
Observation
vector
Implementation of Correlator
Receiver
dt t s t r z
i
T
i
) ( ) (
0
}
=
}
T
0
) ( 1 t s
-
}
T
0
) (t s M
-
(
(
(

M
z
z

1
z =
) (t r
) (
1
T z
) (T z
M
z
Bank of M correlators
Correlators output:
Observation
vector
) ,..., , ( )) ( ),..., ( ), ( (
2 1 2 1 M M
z z z T z T z T z = = z
M i ,..., 1 =
Example of Implementation of
Matched Filter Receivers
(
(
(

2
1
z
z
z =
) (t r
) (
1
T z
) (
2
T z
z
Bank of 2 matched filters
T t
) (
1
t s
T t
) (
2
t s
T
T 0
0
T
A
T
A
T
A
T
A
0
0
Signal space
What is a signal space?
Vector representations of signals in an N-dimensional
orthogonal space
Why do we need a signal space?
It is a means to convert signals to vectors and vice vrs
It is a means to calculate signals energy and
Euclidean distances between signals.
Why are we interested in Euclidean distances
between signals?
For detection purposes: The received signal is
transformed to a received vectors. The signal which
has the minimum distance to the received signal is
estimated as the transmitted signal.
Schematic example of a Signal Space







) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 2 2 1 1
32 31 3 2 32 1 31 3
22 21 2 2 22 1 21 2
12 11 1 2 12 1 11 1
z z t z t z t z
a a t a t a t s
a a t a t a t s
a a t a t a t s
= + =
= + =
= + =
= + =
z
s
s
s




) (
1
t
) (
2
t
) , (
12 11 1
a a = s
) , (
22 21 2
a a = s
) , (
32 31 3
a a = s
) , (
2 1
z z = z
Transmitted signal
alternatives
Received signal at
matched filter output
Signal space
To form a signal space, first we need to know
the inner product between two signals
(functions):
Inner (scalar) product:


Properties of inner product:


> < >= < ) ( ), ( ) ( ), ( t y t x a t y t ax
> < >= < ) ( ), ( ) ( ), (
*
t y t x a t ay t x
> < + > >=< + < ) ( ), ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ), ( ) ( t z t y t z t x t z t y t x
}

>= < dt t y t x t y t x ) ( ) ( ) ( ), (
*
= cross-correlation between x(t) and y(t)
Signal Space
The distance in signal space is measured by calculating
the norm.
What is norm?
Norm of a signal:




Norm between two signals:


We refer to the norm between two signals as the
Euclidean distance between two signals.

) ( ) (
,
t y t x d
y x
=
x
E dt t x t x t x t x = = > < =
}

2
) ( ) ( ), ( ) (
) ( ) ( t x a t ax =
= length of x(t)
Example of distances in Signal Space
) (
1
t
) (
2
t
) , (
12 11 1
a a = s
) , (
22 21 2
a a = s
) , (
32 31 3
a a = s
) , (
2 1
z z = z
z s
d
,
1
z s
d
,
2
z s
d
,
3
The Euclidean distance between signals z(t) and s(t):
3 , 2 , 1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
2 2
2
1 1 ,
=
+ = =
i
z a z a t z t s d
i i i z s
i
1
E
3
E
2
E
Signal space - contd
N-dimensional orthogonal signal space is
characterized by N linearly independent functions
called basis functions. The basis functions
must satisfy the orthogonality condition



where

If all , the signal space is orthonormal.




Orthonormal basis
Gram-Schmidt procedure
{ }
N
j
j
t
1
) (
=

ji i j
T
i j i
K dt t t t t o = >= <
}
) ( ) ( ) ( ), (
*
0
T t s s 0
N i j ,..., 1 , =

=
=
=
j i
j i
ij
0
1
o
1 =
i
K
Example of an Orthonormal Basis
Functions
Example: 2-dimensional orthonormal signal space






Example: 1-dimensional orthonornal signal space


1 ) ( ) (
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ), (
0 ) / 2 sin(
2
) (
0 ) / 2 cos(
2
) (
2 1
2
0
1 2 1
2
1
= =
= >= <

< s =
< s =
}
t t
dt t t t t
T t T t
T
t
T t T t
T
t
T


t
t
) (
1
t
) (
2
t
0
T t
) (
1
t
T
1
0
1 ) (
1
= t
) (
1
t
0
Signal Space contd
Any arbitrary finite set of waveforms
where each member of the set is of duration T,
can be expressed as a linear combination of N
orthonogal waveforms where .


where



{ }
M
i
i
t s
1
) (
=
{ }
N
j
j
t
1
) (
=

M N s

=
=
N
j
j ij i
t a t s
1
) ( ) (
M i ,..., 1 =
M N s
dt t t s
K
t t s
K
a
T
j i
j
j i
j
ij
) ( ) (
1
) ( ), (
1
0
*
}
>= < = T t s s 0
M i ,..., 1 =
N j ,..., 1 =
) ,..., , (
2 1 iN i i i
a a a = s
2
1
ij
N
j
j i
a K E

=
=
Vector representation of waveform
Waveform energy
Signal Space - contd

=
=
N
j
j ij i
t a t s
1
) ( ) (
) ,..., , (
2 1 iN i i i
a a a = s
(
(
(

iN
i
a
a

1
) (
1
t
) (t
N

1 i
a
iN
a
) (t s
i
}
T
0
) (
1
t
}
T
0
) (t
N

(
(
(

iN
i
a
a

1
m
s =
) (t s
i
1 i
a
iN
a
m
s
Waveform to vector conversion Vector to waveform conversion
Example of Projecting Signals to an
Orthonormal Signal Space






) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
32 31 3 2 32 1 31 3
22 21 2 2 22 1 21 2
12 11 1 2 12 1 11 1
a a t a t a t s
a a t a t a t s
a a t a t a t s
= + =
= + =
= + =
s
s
s



) (
1
t
) (
2
t
) , (
12 11 1
a a = s
) , (
22 21 2
a a = s
) , (
32 31 3
a a = s
Transmitted signal
alternatives
dt t t s a
T
j i ij
) ( ) (
0
}
=
T t s s 0
M i ,..., 1 =
N j ,..., 1 =
Signal Space contd
To find an orthonormal basis functions for a given
set of signals, Gram-Schmidt procedure can be
used.
Gram-Schmidt procedure:
Given a signal set , compute an orthonormal
basis
1. Define
2. For compute
If let
If , do not assign any basis function.
3. Renumber the basis functions such that basis is


This is only necessary if for any i in step 2.
Note that



{ }
M
i i
t s
1
) (
=
{ }
N
j
j
t
1
) (
=

) ( / ) ( / ) ( ) (
1 1 1 1 1
t s t s E t s t = =
M i ,..., 2 =

=
> < =
1
1
) ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ) (
i
j
j j i i i
t t t s t s t d
0 ) ( = t d
i
) ( / ) ( ) ( t d t d t
i i i
=
0 ) ( = t d
i
{ } ) ( ),..., ( ), (
2 1
t t t
N

0 ) ( = t d
i
M N s
Example of Gram-Schmidt
procedure
Find the basis functions and plot the signal space for
the following transmitted signals:




Using Gram-Schmidt procedure:
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2 1
1 2
1 1
A A
t A t s
t A t s
= =
=
=
s s

) (
1
t
-A A 0
1
s
2
s
T t
) (
1
t s
T t
) (
2
t s
T
A
T
A
0
0
T t
) (
1
t
T
1
0
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ), (
/ ) ( / ) ( ) (
) (
1 2 2
0
1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1
0
2
2
1 1
= =
= >= <
= =
= =
}
}
t A t s t d
A dt t t s t t s
A t s E t s t
A dt t s E
T
T

1
2
Implementation of Matched Filter
Receiver
) (t r
1
z
) ( 1 t T
-

) ( t T N
-

N
z
Bank of N matched filters
Observation
vector
) ( ) ( t T t r z
j j
- =
N j ,..., 1 =
) ,..., , (
2 1 N
z z z = z

=
=
N
j
j ij i
t a t s
1
) ( ) (
M N s
M i ,..., 1 =
(
(
(

N
z
z
1
z =
z
Implementation of Correlator
Receiver
dt t t r z
j
T
j
) ( ) (
0

}
=
) ,..., , (
2 1 N
z z z = z
N j ,..., 1 =
}
T
0
) (
1
t
}
T
0
) (t
N

(
(
(

N
r
r

1
z =
) (t r
1
z
N
z
z
Bank of N correlators
Observation
vector

=
=
N
j
j ij i
t a t s
1
) ( ) ( M i ,..., 1 =
M N s
Example of Matched Filter
Receivers using Basis Functions
Number of matched filters (or correlators) is reduced by 1 compared to
using matched filters (correlators) to the transmitted signal.







Reduced number of filters (or correlators)
| |
1
z
z =
) (t r z
1 matched filter
T t
) (
1
t
T
1
0
1
z
T t
) (
1
t s
T t
) (
2
t s
T t
) (
1
t
T
1
0
T
A
T
A
0
0
White Noise in Orthonormal Signal
Space
AWGN n(t) can be expressed as:
) (
~
) (

) ( t n t n t n + =
Noise projected on the signal space
which impacts the detection process.
Noise outside on the signal space
> =< ) ( ), ( t t n n
j j

0 ) ( ), (
~
>= < t t n
j

) ( ) (
1
t n t n
N
j
j j
=
=
N j ,..., 1 =
N j ,..., 1 =
Vector representation of
) ,..., , (
2 1 N
n n n = n
) ( t n
independent zero-mean
Gaussain random variables with
variance
{ }
N
j
j
n
1 =
2 / ) var(
0
N n
j
=