MOTIVATION

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What Leads to Performance?
Performance
=
f (Ability, Motivation, Opportunity)

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What is Motivation?
Origin : Latin Movere= to move
Dynamic force which sets a person into motion
An inner state that energizes, activates and directs
or channels behavior towards goals

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Motivation.
Process of channeling a persons inner drives so that he
wants to accomplish the goals of the organization

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Motivation
The willingness to exert high levels of efforts
towards organizational goals, conditioned by the
efforts ability to satisfy some individual need.
- Stephen P Robbins

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The Motivation Process
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Nature
Individuals differ in their motivation
Motivations change
Motivations are expressed differently
Ind. may himself be unaware of his
motivation
An internal feeling

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Theories of Motivation
Content
Theories
Process
Theories
What Motivates People
focus on internal needs
How Motivation occurs
how people choose behaviors
to satisfy their needs
1. Maslows Need Hierarchy
2. Herzbergs 2 factor theory
3. Alderfers ERG theory
4. McClellands Need theory
1. Victor Vrooms
Expectancy theory
2. Porter Lawler Model
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Focus on what arouses, energizes, or starts
behavior, i.e. individual physiological &
psychological needs
Motivation results from the individuals
attempts to satisfy needs.
Attempt to identify & prioritize the needs &
drives that motivate people.

Content Theories
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Lower
Order
needs
Higher
Order
needs
Esteem Needs
Safety Needs
Social Needs
Self
Actualization
Physiological Needs
Growth needs

Internal

Symbolic
behavior
Striving needs
External
Economic
behavior
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Satisfied need no longer motivates
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Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory
Adult motives are complex
Needs form a Hierarchy Lower needs to be
satisfied before higher order needs
People seek growth. They want to move up the
hierarchy of needs
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Research evidence
Flexible hierarchy of needs
Satisfaction of one need level may not decrease its
importance & increase importance of next need level.
Needs vary according to:
A persons career stage.
Organizational size.
Geographic location.
Across Cultures
Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory
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Managerial implications

Physiological needs wages, food, breaks
Safety needs safe working environment, job security,
insurance
Social needs teams, opportunity to interact
Esteem needs challenging tasks, recognition,
participation, status symbols
Self actualization needs encourage creativity,
innovation
Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory
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Herzbergs Two Factor theory
Frederick Herzberg
Dual Factor / Motivation-hygiene theory
Portrays two different factors
Hygiene factors: related to job context
Motivating factors: related to job content
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Research (1950) Asked people to describe
situations in which they found their job
exceptionally good or bad

Conclusion:
Job satisfaction Intrinsic factors
Dissatisfaction extrinsic factors
Herzbergs Two Factor theory
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Herzbergs Two- Factor Theory
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction
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Environmental, external to job
Prevent dissatisfaction
Zero level motivation if maintained
Intrinsic factors
Build high level of motivation & job
satisfaction
Stimulates superior performance
Herzbergs Two Factor theory
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Herzbergs Two Factor theory
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Research evidence
Theory fails to:
Account for individual differences.
Link motivation & needs to both satisfaction &
performance.
Consider cultural & professional differences.
( Ex- Theory applicable to knowledge workers. For blue
collar workers maintenance factors maybe motivators)
Herzbergs Two Factor theory
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Alderfers ERG Theory
Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
Collapses Maslows five categories into three
categories: existence needs, relatedness needs,
and growth needs.
More than one need category may be activated
at the same time.
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ERG Theory
Existence needs: Desire for physiological &
material well-being.
Relatedness needs: Desire for satisfying
interpersonal relationships.
Growth needs: Desire for continued personal
growth & development.
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Research evidence on ERG theory:
Supporting evidence is encouraging.
Offers a more flexible approach to
understanding human needs.
ERG Theory
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Comparison of Content Theories
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McClellands Need theory
David McClelland Acquired needs theory
Individuals specific needs are acquired over time & are
shaped by ones life experiences
3 fundamental needs found in varying degrees
This mix of motivational needs, characterizes a
manager's style & behavior, both in terms of being
motivated & in the management & motivation of others
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McClellands
Need theory
N Ach
N Aff
N Pow
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McClellands Need theory
Managerial implications
People with different needs are motivated differently
High need for Achievement Challenging projects with
reachable goals, frequent feedback
High need for Affiliation Cooperative environment,
group projects
High need for Power Opportunity to manage others
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Focus on the cognitive processes that
influence behavior, i.e. why a person behaves
in a particular way.
Deal with how to motivate

Process theories
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Vrooms Expectancy Theory
Developed by Victor Vroom.
A persons motivation is a multiplicative function
of:
Expectancy.
Instrumentality
Valence.
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Expectancy: Probability assigned by individual
that work effort will be followed by a given level of
task accomplishment
Instrumentality: Probability assigned by the
individual that a given level of achieved task
performance will lead to various work outcomes.
Valence: The value attached by the individual to
various work outcomes.
Vrooms Expectancy Theory
Overview of Expectancy Theory
Role perceptions
and opportunities
Effort
Expectancy
Instrumentality
Valence of
reward
Performance Reward
MOTIVATION
Abilities
and traits
JOB
PERFORMANCE
X
X
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Simplified Expectancy Theory
Training and
development
Performance appraisal
system
Human resources
management
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Motivational implications of expectancy theory.
Motivation is sharply reduced when,
expectancy, instrumentality or valence
approach zero.
Motivation is high when expectancy &
instrumentality are high & valence is strongly
positive.
Vrooms Expectancy Theory
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Managerial implications of expectancy theory.

Managers should act to maximize
expectancies, instrumentalities, & valences
that support organizational objectives.
Vrooms Expectancy Theory
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Research evidence on expectancy theory.
Theory has received substantial empirical
support.
Multiplier effect is subject to some question.
May be useful to distinguish between extrinsic
rewards and intrinsic rewards.
Does not specify which rewards will motivate
particular groups of workers, thereby allowing
for cross-cultural differences.
Vrooms Expectancy Theory
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Porter Lawler Model
Tries to establish relationship between the
efforts, performance & satisfaction of individual.
Important variables are:
Effort
Performance
Rewards
Satisfaction
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Porter Lawler Model
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Contemporary Theories
Adams Equity Theory
Attribution Theory

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Adams Equity Theory
Workplace development by J.Stacy Adams.
People gauge the fairness of their work outcomes
in relation to others.
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Adams Equity Theory
Negative inequity
Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than
others in proportion to work inputs.
Positive inequity
Individual feels he/she has received relatively more
than others in proportion to work inputs.
Unfavorable
social comparison
of work outcomes
Perceived
inequity
People motivated
to remove
discomfort
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Referent is an object of reference or individual
with whom the employee compares himself.

Referent Comparisons Used:
Self-Inside
Self-Outside
Others-Inside
Others-Outside
Adams Equity Theory
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Equity Theory Relationships
Inequity (under rewarded)
EMPLOYEES
ASSESSMENT
Equity
Inequity (over rewarded)
*Person A is the employee, and Person B is a relevant other or referent.
Has far more explanatory & predictive validity for
under reward than for over reward.
Equity Theory: An Example
INEQUITABLE RELATIONSHIP
Andy is
overpaid
compared to Bill
Bill is
underpaid
compared to Andy
Bills outcomes
($25,000/year)
Bills inputs
(40 hours/week)
Andys outcomes
($30,000/year)
Andys inputs
(40 hour/week)
Andy feels guilty
Bill feels angry
EQUITABLE RELATIONSHIP
Andys outcomes
($30,000/year)
Andys inputs
(40 hour/week)
Andy is equitably paid
compared to Bill
Bills outcomes
($30,000/year)
Bills inputs
(40 hours/week)
Bill is equitably paid
compared to Andy
Bill feels
satisfied
Andy feels
satisfied
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Equity restoration behaviors.
Change work inputs.
Change the outcomes received.
Leave the situation.
Change the comparison points.
Change perception of self
Psychologically distort the comparisons
Adams Equity Theory
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Equity theory implications
Inequity perceptions are entirely from reward
recipients perspective, not from reward givers
perspective.
The equity process must be managed so as to
influence the reward recipients equity
perceptions.
Adams Equity Theory
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Research evidence on equity theory.
Overpayment (felt positive inequity) results in
increased quantity or quality of work.
Underpayment (felt negative inequity) results
in decreased quantity or quality of work.
Stronger support for underpayment results.
Adams Equity Theory
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Research evidence on equity theory cont.
Overpayment & underpayment results are
closely tied to individualistic cultures.
Collectivist cultures emphasize equality rather
than equity.
Adams Equity Theory
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Attribution Theory
Attribution theory explains personal perception &
interpersonal behavior.
It helps in:
Understanding the causes of a certain event.
Assessing responsibility for the outcomes of
the event.
Evaluating the personal qualities of the people
involved in the event.
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Theory of Causal Attributions
Internal
Attribution
(to persons
disposition)
External
Attribution
(to persons
situation)
Consistency
Does person usually
behave this way in
this situation?
Distinctiveness
Does person behave
differently in different
situations?
Consensus
Do others behave
similarly in this
situation?
No
Yes
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Theory of Causal Attributions
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Motivating Performance
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Motivating Performance
Two Approaches for motivating Performance:
Job Design Goal Setting
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Job Design Approach
Job: Grouping of tasks within a prescribed unit
or units of work.

Job Design: The process of structuring tasks and
responsibilities into a job in an attempt to make
the job more meaningful, significant and
satisfying.
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The Job Characteristics Model
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Richard Hackman Greg Oldham

The model states that 5 core job characteristics
cause employees to experience critical
psychological states, which can lead to high
levels of motivation, satisfaction & performance.
The Job Characteristics Model
Motivating
Potential
Score
Skill
Variety
Task
Identity
Task
Significance
=
+ +
x
Autonomy
x
Feedback
/ 3
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Approaches to job design
Job engineering
Job Enlargement
Job Rotation
Job Enrichment
Quality of work life & socio-technical approach
Measuring task scope
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Guidelines for Job Redesign
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Goal Setting Approach
Goal: The desired consequence of an action.

Human behavior is purposeful & goals direct &
sustain their behavior in a particular manner
- Locke, Wood & Mento
Two Primary attributes:
Content: level of difficulty involved in attaining
a goal.
Intensity: Process by which a goal is set &
accomplished.

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Goal Setting Approach
Goals should have the following features:
Specific
Challenging
Must be owned & accepted
Must have a specific time frame
Measurable
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Barriers to effective goal setting
Lack of top mgmt support
Lack of communication
Content of the goal
Technical incompetence

Goal Setting Approach
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Management by Objectives
Peter Drucker
Performance enhancement through mutual goal
setting and performance review.
Common features:
Goal specification
Participative decision making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
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Four Stages
Consensus on key goals & objectives
Sketch plan of action
Control Behavior
Periodic appraisal & review
Management by Objectives
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