Stress and Strains

Here, we shall discuss the effects produced by the

application of loads, on the materials. Before entering into
the details of the effects, following few terms should be
clearly understood.

LOAD: All the external forces acting on a body, combined
together, constitute what is called the load.

Force due to dead weight or weight not in motion
Inertia force: acting in the direction opposite to that of the
accelerating or retarding force.
Centrifugal force: due to rotation.
Frictional force: due to the relative motion between the two
mating parts
Force due to expansion or contraction

INTRODUCTION
STRESS
STRAIN
Linear relationship in ELASTIC REGION
Nonlinear relationship in PLASTIC REGION
Materials deform when
subjected to load
Average Normal Stress (assume uniform):
The force (load) acts perpendicular to the area
A
P
= o
Units: N/m
2
or Pascal
P = applied load (force), N
A = cross-sectional area, m
2
The force (load) lies in the plane of the area
(A) Single Shear:

Average Shearing Stress (assume uniform):
A
F
A
P
ave
= = t
Units: N/m
2
(Pascal)
P = applied load
F = internal force
A = area of action
Bolted attachment

Glued joints
(B) Double Shear:
Bolted attachment

Glued joints
A
F
A
P
A
P
ave
= = =
2
2 /
t
Units: N/m
2
(Pascal)
P = applied load
F = internal force
A = area of action
Average Bearing Stress (cannot assume uniform):
due to bearing contact surface
td
P
A
P
b
= = o
Units: N/m
2
(Pascal)
P = applied load
d = bolt diameter
t = plate thickness
Factor of Safety = a method to specify the allowable load for
the design or analysis of a member.




Ffail is found from experimental testing of the material
F.S. is selected based on experience
Fallow is less than the load a member can fully support
Example: Bridge: You know Ffail and you specify F.S. then
you specify Fallow for the bridge: cannot exceeds 10 cars on
the bridge at a time

allow
fail
F
F
S F = . .
Stress, Strain & Hooke's Law

In Diagram 1, the structure shown
is composed of axial member AC
which is pinned to the floor at point
A, and cable BC which is pinned to
the wall at point B. In addition, a
load of 15,000 lb is attached to the
structure at point C. If we solve for
the forces acting on and in the
structure we will find that at point
A there is a support force of 14,180
lb. acting at 37
o
(along the direction
of the member); which is also the
internal force in member AC,
14,180 lb (compression). At point B,
the external support force of the
wall on the cable has a value of
13,090 lb., acting at an angle of
150
o
(from +x-axis) This is also the
value of the internal tension in the
cable, 13,090 lb. Now, we could ask
the question; Is this structure safe?
Are members BC and AC strong
enough to support the load?

With respect to diagram 1, we recognize right
away that knowing the force in the cable BC is
not enough to tell us if the cable is safe or if it
will break. Clearly it depends on several other
factors in addition to the force in the cable. It
depends on the size of the cable. A 1"
diameter steel cable will carry more load than
a " diameter steel cable. It also depends on
what the cable is made of. A steel cable will
clearly support more than an aluminum cable.
To address the first consideration, we will turn
to the concept of STRESS.


AXIAL STRESS

What is known as Axial (or
Normal) Stress, often
symbolized by the Greek letter
sigma, is defined as the force
perpendicular to the cross
sectional area of the member
divided by the cross sectional
area. Oro = F / A = ib/in
2
or
N/m
2
. In diagram 2, a solid rod
of length L, is under simple
tension due to force F, as
shown. If we divide that axial
force, F, by the cross sectional
area of the rod (A), this quotient
would be the axial stress in the
member. Axial stress is the
equivalent of pressure in a gas
or liquid. As you remember,
pressure is the force/unit area.
So axial stress is really the
'pressure' in a solid member.
Now the question becomes, how
much 'pressure' can a material
bear before it fails.



AXIAL STRESS
Well, we will examine that
question in some detail in a bit,
but to give an example, a
normal operating stress for
carbon steel might be 30,000
lb/in
2
. Now let's return to our
example shown in Diagram 1
(repeated in Diagram 3). In our
structure , if we assume both
the member and the cable are
made of steel, and if the
diameter of the cable is .5
inches, and if the cross
sectional area of the member is
1.2 in
2
, are the stresses in the
cable BC and in member AC
within the 'allowable' stress for
steel of 30,000 lb/in
2
?



AXIAL STRESS
For the cable BC: Axial Stress =
F/A = 13,090 lb./ (t *
.25"
2
) = 66,700 lb/in
2

For the member AC: Axial
Stress = F/A = 14,180 lb./
(1.2 in
2
) = 11,820 lb/in
2

These are interesting
results. We see from the
calculations that the stress
in member AC (11,820
lb/in
2
) is well within the
allowable stress of 30,000
lb/in
2
, however, we also see
clearly that the stress in the
cable BC (66,700 lb/in
2
) is
over twice the allowable
stress of 30,000 lb/in
2
. This
means that the inch
diameter cable is much too
small to support the load
AXIAL STRESS
Well, what size cable
should we use?
Another interesting
question whose answer
we find by simply
reversing our process,
using the stress equation
to find the minimum size
cable for the allowable
stress of 30,000 lb/in
2
.
That is, we set the stress
value to the allowable
stress of 30,000 lb/in
2
,
put in the axial force in
the cable, and solve for
the cable area needed

AXIAL STRESS
Axial Stress = F/A :
30,000 lb/in
2
= 13,090
lb./A; solving for A =
.436 in
2
. Since the area of
cable = 3.14 (r
2
), we can
solve for the radius r =
square root (.436
in
2
/3.14) = .373 inches.
So the minimum diameter
steel cable which would
safely support the load is d
= .746 inches ( or inch
diameter cable). This is
an important process. We
checked the members in
the structure, found one
was not safe according to
the allowable stress for the
material, and then
calculated the size member
needed so that the
structure would be safe.

OBJECTIVE
Show how STRESS can be related to
STRAIN by using experimental methods
Outcome: stress-strain diagram
Show the relationship of stress and strain
in ELASTIC REGION
Outcome: Hookes Law
Stress-Strain Diagram
How stress can be related to strain by using
experimental methods?
1. Perform tension and compression tests
2. Use tension and compression data to compute
various values of stress and strain
stress: strain:

3. Plot the results stress-strain diagram!
= same unit as pressure (Nm
-2
or Pa)
F = applied load (force)
A = cross-sectional area
o = displacement
L = original length
A
F
= o
L
o
e=
Difference between Conventional
vs. True
There are 2 types of stress-strain diagram:
1. Conventional stress-strain diagram
(always using original cross-sec area and original
specimen length)

2. True stress-strain diagram
(use actual cross-sec area and actual specimen
length at the instant the load is measured
compute true stress and true strain)

Elastic Behavior:
Definition: if load is
removed, the specimen can
return to its original shape
Elastic Behavior:
Straight line: stress is
proportional to strain
(linearly elastic)
Elastic Behavior:
Small portion of bend-and-
flatten-out: from proportional
limit to elastic limit
Yielding:
Definition: above the elastic
limit deform permanently
(Plastic deformation)
Yielding:
Yield stress/ yield point: The
stress that causes yielding
Yielding:
Even without any increase in
the load (constant ), the
specimen will continue to
elongate (extent ).
Strain Hardening:
Definition: further load
curve rises continuously but
flatter (strain hardening)
reaches a maximum stress
(ultimate stress)
From the start until
ultimate stress:
specimen elongates cross-
sectional area decreases
fairly uniform over the entire
length
Necking:
From ultimate stress
onwards: specimen elongates
cross-sectional area
decreases in a localized
region of the specimen
Ductile material = any material that can be subjected to
large strains before it rupture. E.g. mild steel

Brittle material = material that exhibit little or no yielding
before failure. E.g. gray cast iron
Hookes Law (for normal stress vs.
normal strain)
e = E o
E = Youngs modulus or modulus of elasticity
E has Units: Pa or MPa or GPa
= normal stress (F/A); has units Nm
-2
or Pa etc.
= normal strain; dimensionless
Exhibit a linear relationship between stress and strain
within the elastic region
See examples 3.1, 3.2(a), 3.3
Hookes Law (for shear stress vs. shear strain)
t G =
G = shear modulus of elasticity
G has Units: Pa or MPa or GPa
t = shear stress (F/A); has units Nm
-2
or Pa etc.
_ = shear strain; measured in radian, dimensionless
Exhibit a linear relationship between shear and strain
within the elastic region
See examples 3.5, 3.6(a)
Poissons Ratio
(subjected to axial tensile/compressive force)
long
lat
e
e
= v
L
long
o
= e
r
lat
'
o
= e
) 1 ( 2 v
E
G
+
=
long = strain in longitudinal or axial direction
lat = strain in lateral or radial direction
o = longitudinal displacement (change of bars length)
o = lateral displacement (change of radius)
-ve sign is used here because longitudinal elongation
(+ve strain) causes lateral contraction (-ve strain)
Three material constants are related by
See examples 3.4, 3.6(b)
Stress, Strain & Hooke's
Law

In our first topic, Static
Equilibrium, we examined
structures in which we
assumed the members were
rigid - rigid in the sense that
we assumed that the
member did not deform due
to the applied loads and
resulting forces. In real
members, of course, we
have deformation. That is,
the length (and other
dimensions) change due to
applied loads and forces. In
fact, if we look at a metal
rod in simple tension as
shown in diagram 1, we see
that there will be an
elongation (or deformation)
due to the tension.

Stress, Strain & Hooke's Law
If we then graph the tension
(force) verses the deformation we
obtain a result as shown in
diagram 2.
In diagram 2, we see that, if our
metal rod is tested by increasing the
tension in the rod, the deformation
increases. In the first region the
deformation increases in proportion
to the force. That is, if the amount of
force is doubled, the amount of
deformation is doubled. This is a
form of Hooke's Law and could be
written this way: F = k
(deformation), where k is a constant
depending on the material (and is
sometimes called the spring
constant). After enough force has
been applied the material enters the
plastic region - where the force and
the deformation are not proportional,
but rather a small amount of
increase in force produces a large
amount of deformation. In this
region, the rod often begins to 'neck
down', that is, the diameter becomes
smaller as the rod is about to fail.
Finally the rod actually breaks.



Stress, Strain & Hooke's Law (Contd)
The point at which the Elastic Region ends is
called the elastic limit, or the proportional limit. In
actuality, these two points are not quite the same.
The Elastic Limit is the point at which permanent
deformation occurs, that is, after the elastic limit, if
the force is taken off the sample, it will not return
to its original size and shape, permanent
deformation has occurred. The Proportional Limit
is the point at which the deformation is no longer
directly proportional to the applied force (Hooke's
Law no longer holds). Although these two points
are slightly different, we will treat them as the
same in this course (Diagram 2)

Next, rather than examining the applied force and
resulting deformation, we will instead graph the
axial stress verses the axial strain (diagram 3).

We have defined the axial stress
earlier. The axial strain is
defined as the fractional
change in length or Strain =
(deformation of member)
divided by the (original
length of member) , Strain
is often represented by the
Greek symbol epsilon(c), and
the deformation is often
represented by the Greek
symbol delta(o), so we may
write: Strain c = o / L
0

(where L
o
is the original length
of the member) Strain has no
units - since its length divided
by length, however it is
sometimes expressed as
'in./in.' in some texts.

As we see from diagram 3, the Stress verses Strain graph has the
same shape and regions as the force verses deformation graph in
diagram 2. In the elastic (linear) region, since stress is directly
proportional to strain, the ratio of stress/strain will be a constant (and
actually equal to the slope of the linear portion of the graph). This
constant is known as Young's Modulus, and is usually symbolized by an
E or Y. We will use E for Young's modulus. We may now write Young's
Modulus = Stress/Strain, or: E = o / c . (This is another form of
Hooke's Law.)

The value of Young's
modulus - which is a
measure of the amount of
force needed to produce a
unit deformation - depends
on the material. Young's
Modulus for Steel is 30 x
10
6
lb/in
2
, for Aluminum E
= 10 x 10
6
lb/in
2
, and for
Brass E = 15 x 10
6
lb/in
2
.
For more values, select: any
text book

SUMMARY / CONCLUSION
Show how STRESS can be related to
STRAIN by using experimental methods
Outcome: ?
Show the relationship of stress and strain
in ELASTIC REGION
Outcome: ?
Summary on Stress and Strains
STRESS (o ) : Any material subjected to load may either deform, yield or break,
depending upon the magnitude of the load, the nature of the material and its cross-
sectional dimensions. Basically all externally applied loads deform an elastic material.
This deformation is called Strain. While undergoing deformation, the body sets up
internal resistance against deformation. This internal resisting force per unit area to
deformation is called Stress. Mathematically, it can be defined as:





Where P = Load or force acting on the body and A = Cross-sectional area of the body.
In S. I. System, the unit is pascal (Pa) or N / m
2
. In actual pratice we must use bigger
units of stress I.e. megapascal (MPa) or gigapascal (Gpa) which is equal to N / mm
2
or
kN / mm
2

Deformation means change of shape or dimensions

A
P
A
R
= = o
STRAIN ( c )
Strain is a measure of the deformation produced in a member by the
loads. This deformation per unit length of the member is known as
Strain. Mathematically it can written as:









Where ol = change of length of body and
l = Original length of body

ension Original
ension in Change
l
l
Strain
dim
dim
) ( = =
o
c
Types of Stresses
Tensile Stress: When equal and opposite forces, applied to a body, tend to
elongate it, as shown in Fig, the body is said to be in tension and the stress so
produced in it, is called the tensile stress. The corresponding strain is called tensile
strain. As a result of the tensile stress, the cross-sectional area of the body gets
reduced
Initial body Elongation after applied force
p
p
Compressive Stress
When a section is subjected to two equal and opposite pushes and the body
tends to shorten its length as shown in Fig, the stress induced is called
compressive stress and the corresponding strain is called compressive
strain. As a result of the compressive stress, the cross-sectional area of the
body gets increased.
p
p
Initial body
Deformation of a Body Due to its Self
Weight
Consider a bar AB hanging freely under its own
weight as shown in Fig. Let l = Length of the bar, A
= Cross-sectional area of the bar, E = Youngs
modulus for the bar material and w = Specific
weight of the bar material.
Consider a small section dx of the bar at a distance x
from B. Weight of the bar for a length of x
P = wAx
Elongation of the small section of the bar, due to weight
of the bar for a small section of length x, = P l / A E
= (wAx). dx / AE = wx. dx/E
Total elongation of the bar may be found out by
integration the above equation between zero and l.
Therefore total elongation,





W = wAl = total weight

l
x
dx
A
B
AE
Wl
E
dx wx
l
l
2
0
= =
}
o
Deformation of a body due to force acting on it
Consider a body subjected to a tensile stress. Let P is the
load or force acting on the body, l is the length of the
body, A is the cross-sectional area of the body, o is the
stress induced in the body, E is the modulus of elasticity
for the material of the body, c is the strain and ol is the
deformation of the body. Then

E A
l P
E
l
l l = = =
o
c o
Example-1
Problem: A hollow cylinder 2 m long has an outside diameter
of 50 mm and inside diameter of 30 mm. If the cylinder is
carrying a load of 25 kN, find the stress in the cylinder. Also
find the deformation of the cylinder, if the value of modulus of
elasticity for the cylinder material is 100GPa.
Solution: Given : Length (l) = 2 m = 2 x 10
3
mm; Outside diameter (D) =
50 mm; Inside diameter (d) = 30 mm; Load (P) = 25 kN = 25 x 10
3
N and
modulus of elasticity (E) = 100 Gpa = 100 x 10
3
N / mm
2
.
Stress in the cylinder
We know the cross-sectional area of the hollow cylinder, A = H / 4 X (D
2

d
2
) = H / 4 X [ (50)
2
(30)
2
] = 1257 mm
2
. Therefore stress in the
cylinder, o = P / A = 25 x 10
3
/ 1257 = 19.9 N/mm
2
= 19.9 Mpa Ans.
Deformation of the cylinder
o L = P. l / A. E = (25 x 10
3
) x (2 x 10
3
) / 1257 x (100 x 10
3
) = 0.4 Ans.

Example-2
Problem: A load of 5 kN is to be raised with the help of a
steel wire. Find the minimum diameter of the steel wire, if
the stress is not to exceed 100 Mpa
Solution: Given: Load (P) = 5 kN = 5 x 10
3
N and Stress
(o ) = 100 Mpa = 100 N / mm
2
.
Let d = Diameter of the wire in mm. We know that stress
in the steel wire (o ),
100 = P / A = 5 x 10
3
/ t /4 x (d)
2

d
2
= 6.366 x 10
3
/ 100 = 63.66 or d = 7.98 say 8 mm Ans.
Example-3
Problem: A copper alloy wire of 1.5 mm diameter and 30 m
long is hanging freely from a tower. What will be its
elongation due to self weight? Take specific weight of the
copper and its modulus of elasticity as 89.2 kN / m
3
and 90
Gpa respectively.
Solution: Given: Diameter (d) = 1.5 mm; Length (l) = 30 m =
30 x 10
3
mm; Specific weight (w) = 89.2 kN / m
3
= 89.2 x 10
-6

N / mm
3
and modulus of elasticity (E) = 90 Gpa = 90 x 10
3
N
/mm
2

We know that cross-sectional area of the wire A = H / 4 x (d)
2

= t / 4 (1.5)
2
= 1.77 mm
2
and elongation of the wire due to
self weight ol = w l
2
/ 2AE = (89.2 x 10
-6
) x (30x 10
3
)
2
/ 2 x
1.77 x (90 x 10
3
) = 0.25 mm Ans.
Principle of Superposition
Sometimes, a body is subjected to a member of forces acting on its
outer edges as well as at some other sections, along the length of the
body. In such case, the forces are split up and their effects are
considered on individual sections. The resulting deformation, of the
body, is equal to the algebraic sum of the deformations of the
individual sections. Such a principle, of finding out the resultant
deformation, is called the principle of superposition. The relation for
the resulting deformation may be modified as:






Where P
1
= Force acting on section 1, l
1
= Length of section 1, P
2
l
2

= corresponding values of section 2 and so on.
) (
1
3 3 2 2 1 1
+ + + = = l P l P l P
E A E A
l P
l o
Example
A steel bar of cross-
sectional area 200
mm
2
is loaded as
shown in right Fig.
Find the change in
length of the bar.
Take E as 200 Gpa.
Solution: Given: Cross-
sectional area (A) = 200
mm
2
and modulus of
elasticity (E) = 200 Gpa
= 200 x 10
3
N / mm
2

30 kN 50 kN 20 kN
300mm 500mm
B C
A
Contd Example
For the sake of simplification,
the force of 50 kN acting at A
may be split up into two
forces of 20 kN and 30 kN
respectively. Now it will be
seen that part AB of the bar is
subjected to a tension of 20
kN and AC is subjected to a
tension of 30 kN as shown in
the right side Fig. We know
that the change in length of
the bar






= 0.75 mm Ans.
20 kN
20 kN
A B
30 kN
30 kN
A
C
mm l )] 800 ( ) 10 30 ( )] 300 ( ) 10 20 [(
10 200 200
1
3 3
3
+

= o