SQL

• Stands for Structural Query Language

• Accepted as Standard Language(ISO,ANSI)
for Relational database
• Non Procedural Language
(what should be done/not how it should be done)
• Interface used to access data from database
 SQL Statements
SELECT Data retrieval
INSERT
UPDATE Data manipulation language (DML)
DELETE
MERGE

CREATE
ALTER
DROP Data definition language (DDL)
RENAME
TRUNCATE

COMMIT
ROLLBACK Transaction control
SAVEPOINT

GRANT Data control language (DCL)

REVOKE
 DDL commands
• DDL -Data Definition Language

– CREATE: to create a new data structure.

– ALTER: to change an existing data structure.

– DROP: to remove an entire data structure.

– TRUNCATE : to remove all rows from table

– RENAME : to rename existing table

 DML commands
• DML-Data Manipulation Language

– INSERT: to add records into the table

– UPDATE: to change column value in the table

– DELETE: to remove rows from the table

– MERGE: to update & insert contents of one

table to another table based on
condition
 DCL

• DCL-Data Control Language

– GRANT :Allow access privileges to users

– REVOKE:Revoke or cancel access privileges
 TCL
• TCL-Transaction Control Language.

– COMMIT :Save or enable DML changes to

the database.
– ROLLBACK: To undo DML changes till in a
transaction
– SAVEPOINT: To divide a transaction
 SELECT command query

Syntax : SELECT (column_list )

FROM (table_list )
WHERE (row restriction)
GROUP BY (attribute names)
HAVING (group restriction)
ORDER BY (attribute name or names)
 Commands
1. To Create Table
Create Table Tablename(field Name Type (Size))
2. To Display The Content Of Table
Select * From Tablename;
3. To Display Structure Of Table
Desc Tablename;
4.To Display All Tables (For Current User)
Select * From Tab;
 Oracle datatypes

 The different Datatypes available are:

 CHAR :To store character type of data

 VARCHAR2 :Similar to CHAR but can store variable

number of characters

 NUMBER :Stores fixed and floating point numbers

 DATE : Stores point-in-time values (i,e. date and

time) in a table
 LONG : Can store upto 2 GB of characters. Similar to
MEMO fields in FoxPro

 RAW : Used to store binary data such as graphics,

sound etc.

 LONGRAW : Contains raw binary data otherwise the same

as a LONG column.
The values entered must be in hex notation.

 CLOB : Character Large Objects

 BLOB : Binary Large Objects

 NCLOB : National Language Support Character Large

Object

 BFILE : Binary File

 SQL FUNCTIONS

– Functions are a very powerful feature of SQL

and can be used to do the following:
• Perform calculations on data
• Modify individual data items
• Manipulate output for groups of rows
• Format dates and numbers for display
• Convert column data types
– SQL functions sometimes take arguments and
always return a value.
TWO TYPES OF SQL FUNCTIONS

Functions

Single-row Multiple-row
functions functions

Operate on single Can manipulate groups

rows only and return of rows to give one
one result per row. result per group of rows
(group functions)
 Single-Row Functions
Character

Accepts
Number
different types Single-row
functions

Conversion Date
 Character Functions
Character
functions

Case-manipulation Character-manipulation
functions functions
LOWER CONCAT
UPPER SUBSTR
INITCAP LENGTH
INSTR
LPAD | RPAD
TRIM
REPLACE
TRANSLATE
Case Manipulation Functions

These functions convert case for character

strings.
Function Result
LOWER('SQL Course') sql course
UPPER('SQL Course') SQL COURSE
INITCAP(‘sql course') Sql Course
 Character-Manipulation
Functions
These functions manipulate character strings:
Function Result
CONCAT('Hello', 'World') HelloWorld
SUBSTR('HelloWorld',1,5) Hello
LENGTH('HelloWorld') 10
INSTR('HelloWorld', 'W') 6
LPAD(salary,10,'*') *****24000
RPAD(salary, 10, '*') 24000*****
TRIM('H' FROM 'HelloWorld') elloWorld
REPLACE(‘HELLO’,’EL’,’12’) H12LO
TRANSLATE(‘HELLO’,’EL’,’12’) H122O
 Pattern Matching

COMMAND DESCRIPTION

S% BEGIN WITH S

%S END WITH S
SECOND LETTER STARTING
_S%
WITH S
_____ EXACTLY 5 LETTERS
 PRACTICE SESSIONS
1. Display the total content of dept table & salgrade
table.
2. List the employees whose names start with "S"
(not "s"):
3. List the employee names ending with an "S" :
4. List the names of employees whose names have
exactly 6 characters:
5. List the employee names having "I" as the
second character: (Write minimum 2 queries)
6. Display o/p ‘SMITH works as CLERK’ using
concat()
7. Find number of ‘A’ occurrences in each row of
dname column
 PRACTICE SESSIONS
8. Write a query to perform trim operation on ename column
of emp table.
9. Write a query to perform ‘replace’ function on ename for
replacing first 3 characters of ename by numbers.
10. Left justify sal column of emp table.(use #)
11. Right justify job column of emp table (use $)
12. Write a query to find 3rd character in ename.
13. Create a query to display all the data from the
EMPLOYEES table. Separate each column by a
comma. Name the column THE_OUTPUT.
14. Write a query to find last character in ename.
15. Display all enames with only 3rd character replaced by
numbers.
16. Display all enames with last character being different case.
17. Display only those names where last character is getting
repeated.
SM2TH SMITH
AL3EN ALLEN
WA7D WARD
JO5ES JONES
MA7TIN MARTIN
BL1KE BLAKE
CL1RK CLARK
SC6TT SCOTT
KI5G KING
TU7NER TURNER
AD1MS ADAMS
JA4ES JAMES
FO7D FORD
MI3LER MILLER

18. Display only those names where second character is getting repeated
In 3rd position.
 Number Functions

• ROUND: Rounds value to specified decimal

ROUND(45.926, 2) 45.93
• TRUNC: Truncates value to specified decimal
TRUNC(45.926, 2) 45.92
• MOD: Returns remainder of division
MOD(1600, 300) 100
 NUMBER functions
ROUND( )

TRUNC( )
CEIL( )
FLOOR( )
POWER()
SQRT( )
SIGN( )
MOD( )
ABS( )
 Date Functions
Function Description

MONTHS_BETWEEN Number of months

between two dates
ADD_MONTHS Add calendar months to
date

NEXT_DAY Next day of the date

specified
Last day of the month
LAST_DAY
ROUND Round date

TRUNC Truncate date

 Using Date Functions
• MONTHS_BETWEEN ('01-SEP-95','11-JAN-94')
19.6774194

• ADD_MONTHS ('11-JAN-94',6) '11-JUL-94'

• NEXT_DAY ('01-SEP-95','FRIDAY')
'08-SEP-95'

• LAST_DAY('01-FEB-95') '28-FEB-95'

• ROUND(TO_DATE('01-JUL-05'),’YYYY’)
‘01-JAN-06'
• TRUNC(TO_DATE('01-JUL-05'),’YYYY’)
‘01-JAN-05'
Useful formats while Using To_char
Functions
FORMAT DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
MM Number of month 12
RM Roman Numerical month XII
MON Three letter abbreviation DEC
MONTH Month fully spelt out DECEMBER
DDD Number of days since Jan 1 347
DD Number of the day of month 13
D Number of days in week 2
DY Three-letter abbreviation of day WED
DAY Day fully spelt out WEDNESDAY
YYYY Full 4 digit year 1995
SYYYY Signed Year 1000,BC=1000
YYY Last three digits of year 995
YY Last 2 digits of year 95
Y Last digit of year 5
YEAR Year fully spelt out NINTEEN-NINTY-FIVE
 PRACTICE SESSIONS
1. Select To-day’s date.
2. Find out the experience of each employee and arrange in the
increasing order of experience.
3. Select a query to return next Sunday.
4. Write a query to find how old are you?( express in years and
months)
5. List employees hired on Monday.
6. Show all employees who were hired in the first half of the month
(before the 16th of the month).
7. Write a Query to find out the last day of any given year.
8. Add 1 year to each employee and display as a separate column.
9. Write a query to find first Sunday of hiredate. (first Sunday in the
joining month)
10. Create an anniversary overview based on the hire date of the
employees. Sort the anniversaries in ascending order.
 Aggregate Functions
The aggregate functions produce a single value for an entire
group or table

 COUNT determines the number of rows or non NULL

column values

 SUM determines the sum of all selected columns

 MAX : determines the largest of all selected values of a

column

 MIN : determines the smallest of all selected values of a

column

 AVG : determines the average of all selected values of a

column

 In all the above functions, NULLs are ignored

 PRACTICE SESSIONS
1. List the number of employees working with the
company
2. List the number of jobs available in the emp
table:
3. List the total salaries payable to employees
4. List the maximum salary of employee working
as a salesman:
5. List the minimum salary from emp table
6. List the average salary and number of
employees working in the department 20:
 Conditional Retrieval of Rows
• The WHERE clause is used along with the SELECT statement to specify
the condition, based on which the rows will be extracted from a table
with SELECT

• Operators used to specify conditions

Relational operators Logical Operators

= :Equal to AND :Logical And
>= : Greater than or equal to OR :Logical or
<= : Less than or equal to NOT : Logical not
<>,!= : Not equal to
 PRACTICE SESSIONS

1. List the employees belonging to the department 20:

2. List the name and salary of the employees whose
salary is more than 1000:
3. List the employee number and name of managers:
4. List the names of the clerks working in the department
20:
5. List the names of analysts and salesmen
6. List the details of the employees who have joined
before the end of September- 81:

7. List the names of employees who are not managers:

8. List the name of the employees whose employee

numbers are 7369, 7521, 7839 7934, 7788:
 Special operators
IN Checking value in a set
BETWEEN Checking value with a
range
NOT IN Checking value not in set

Examples
 List the employees belonging to the department 20:
SELECT * FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 20;
 PRACTICE SESSIONS

1. List the name of the employees whose

employee numbers are 7369, 7521, 7839 7934,
7788:
2. List the employee details not belonging to the
department 10,30 and 40:
3. List the employee name and salary, whose
salary is between 1000 and 2000:
4. List employee names, who have joined before
30th June-81 and after December-81:
 General Functions

 GREATEST(expr1 [,expr2]...)

 LEAST(expr1 [, expr2] ...)

 NVL(col, value)

 DECODE(C,V1,S1,V2,S2,...,D)
 Order by Clause
 SQL uses the ORDER BY clause to impose an order on the
result of a query.
 ORDER BY clause is used with SELECT statement
 The syntax is
SELECT[DISTINCT] <column list> | <expr>
FROM <table>[,<table>] [WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY <columns>] [ASC|DESC]
 One or more columns and/or expressions can be specified in
ORDER BY clause.
Examples:
 List the empno, ename, sal in ascending order of salary:

SELECT empno, ename, sal FROM emp

ORDER BY sal;
 PRACTICE SESSIONS
1. List the empno, ename, sal in ascending order of salary:

2. List the employee name and hiredate in descending

order of hiredate:
3. List the employee name, salary, Job and Department no

descending order of Department No and salary:

4. List the employee details in ascending order of salary:
(using column nos.,)
5. List the employee name, salary, PF, HRA, DA and
gross; order the result in ascending order of gross. HRA
is 50% of salary and DA is 30 % of salary.
Working with NULL values
 NULL values are not 0 or a blank.

 It represents an unknown or inapplicable value

 It cannot be compared using the relational and/or logical

operators

 The special operator 'IS' is used with the keyword 'NULL' to

locate NULL values

Examples:

 List the employee names, who are not eligible for

commission:

SELECT ename FROM emp

WHERE comm IS NULL;
 PRACTICE SESSIONS

1. List the employee names, who are not eligible

for commission:
2. List the name of the employee and designation
(job)of the employee, who does not report to
anybody (mangers is NULL)
3. List the employees who are eligible for
commission:
4. List the details of employees, whose salary is
greater than 2000 and commission is null
Group by and Having Clause
 The GROUP BY clause is used to divide the rows in a table
into smaller groups

 The GROUP BY clause is used with SELECT clause

 SQL groups the result after it retrieves the rows from a table

 Conditional retrieval of rows from a grouped result is possible

with the HAVING clause

 The syntax for GROUP BY clause is

SELECT[DISTINCT] <column list> | <expr>

FROM <table>[,<table>] [WHERE condition]
GROUP BY <col | expr>
[HAVING <cond>]

 ORDER BY clause can be used to order the final result

 Order of Execution

 It chooses rows based on the where clause

 It groups those rows together based on the group by.

 It calculates the results of the group functions for each group.

 It chooses and eliminates groups based on the having

clause

 It orders the groups based on the results of the group

functions in the order by. The order by must use either a
group function or a column in the group by clause.
 PRACTICE SESSIONS
1. List the department numbers and number of employees in each department:

2. List the department number and the total salary payable in each department:
3. List the jobs and the number of employees in each job. The result should be in
descending order of the number of employees:
4. List the total salary, maximum and minimum salary and the average salary of
employees job wise:
5. List the average salary for each job excluding managers
6. List the average monthly salary for each job type within department.

7. List average salary for all departments employing more than five people.
8. List jobs of all the employees where maximum salary is greater than or equal to
5000.
9. List the total salary, maximum and minimum salary and the average salary of
the employees job wise, for department number 20 and display only those
rows having average salary greater than 1000:

10. List the employee numbers, names, department numbers and the department
name:

11. List workers and their respective managers.

12. List all employees who joined the company before their manager.
13. Write a query to list enames with job having maximum no., of employees
 JOINS

• Joins are used to combine columns

from different tables

• The connection between tables is

established through the WHERE
clause
 TYPES OF JOINS
ORACLE PROPRIETARY
JOINS( ORACLE 8I & SQL COMPLAINT JOINS
PRIOR)
• Equi Join • Cross joins
• Non equijoin • Natural joins
• Outer join • Using clause
• Full or two sided outer
• Self join

joins
• Arbitrary join conditions
for outer joins
 Rules to place (+) operator

 The outer join symbol ( + ) can not be on both the

sides.

 We can not "outer join" the same table to more

than one other table in a single SELECT statement.

 A condition involving an outer join may not use the

IN operator or be linked to another condition by the
OR operator.
 PRACTICE SESSIONS
1. List the employee numbers, names, department numbers
and the department name
2. List all employees who joined the company before their
manager.
3. Select employees name with reporting manager.
4. List all employees who are earning more than manager’s.
5. List the employee name along with reporting manager
6. Write a query to display employee name,managername
and manager’s department name.
 JOINING of Tables - Retrieving
data from multiple tables
1. EQUI-JOIN : JOINING of EMP and DEPT tables Using
DEPTNO in WHERE clause.
2. NON-EQUI JOIN : JOINING of EMP and SALGRADE tables
Using WHERE clause
 EQUI-JOIN
SQL> SELECT EMP.ENAME,EMP.JOB,EMP.DEPTNO,
DEPT.DNAME,DEPT.LOC
FROM EMP,DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO;

ENAME JOB DEPTNO DNAME LOC

SMITH CLERK 20 RESEARCH DALLAS

ALLEN SALESMAN 30 SALES CHICAGO

SQL> SELECT E.ENAME,E.JOB,E.DEPTNO,D.DNAME,D.LOC

2 FROM EMP E,DEPT D
3 WHERE E.DEPTNO=D.DEPTNO;
 NON-EQUI JOIN
SQL> SELECT ENAME,JOB,SAL,GRADE
2 FROM EMP E,SALGRADE S
3 WHERE E.SAL BETWEEN S.LOSAL AND S.HISAL;

ENAME JOB SAL GRADE

---------- --------- ---------- ----------

SMITH CLERK 800 1

ADAMS CLERK 1100 1

JAMES CLERK 950 1

WARD SALESMAN 1250 2

 JOINING of EMP,DEPT &
SALGRADE tables
SQL> SELECT ENAME,SAL,E.DEPTNO,DNAME,LOC,GRADE
2 FROM EMP E,DEPT D,SALGRADE S
3 WHERE E.DEPTNO=D.DEPTNO AND
4 E.SAL BETWEEN S.LOSAL AND S.HISAL;

ENAME SAL DEPTNO DNAME LOC

GRADE

SMITH 800 20 RESEARCH DALLAS 1

ADAMS 1100 20 RESEARCH DALLAS 1

JAMES 950 30 SALES CHICAGO 1

 JOINING a table to IT-SELF
SQL> SELECT E.ENAME EMP_NAME,
2 M.ENAME MGR_NAME
3 FROM EMP E,EMP M
4 WHERE E.MGR=M.EMPNO;

EMP_NAME MGR_NAME

---------- ----------

SMITH FORD

ALLEN BLAKE

WARD BLAKE

JONES KING
 Cross Joins
(Cartesian product )
SQL > SELECT * FROM EMP CROSS JOIN DEPT;
SQL > SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,EMP.DEPTNO,DNAME,LOC
FROM EMP CROSS JOIN DEPT
 Cartesian Products

• A Cartesian product is formed when:

– A join condition is omitted
– A join condition is invalid
– All rows in the first table are joined to all
rows in the second table
• To avoid a Cartesian product, always
include a valid join condition in a
WHERE clause.
Generating a Cartesian Product
EMPLOYEES (20 rows) DEPARTMENTS (8 rows)

Cartesian
product:
20x8=160 rows
 What Is a Subquery?

A subquery is a SELECT statement

embedded in a clause of another SQL
statement.
Main SELECT ...
query FROM ...
WHERE ...
(SELECT ... Subquery
FROM ...
WHERE ...)
 Subqueries

SELECT select_list
FROM table
WHERE expr operator (SELECT select_list
FROM table);

• The subquery (inner query) executes

once before the main query.
• The result of the subquery is used by
the main query (outer query).
 Using a Subquery
SELECT ename
FROM emp 10500
WHERE sal >
(SELECT sal
FROM emp
WHERE ename=‘JONES’);

ENAME
----------
SCOTT
KING
FORD
 NESTED QUERIES
(SUBQUERIES)
A SUBQUERY is a SELECT statement that is
nested within another SELECT statement and
which returns intermediate results
Syntax:
SELECT col1,col2,... FROM table_name
WHERE clause operator (SELECT col FROM
table WHERE clause)
Single row subqueries
Let us take an example

SQL> SELECT MIN(SAL) FROM EMP;

MIN(SAL)

----------

800
In the above case minimum sal is retrieved. Now
let us try to retrieve the employee name who has
this minimum salary.

SQL> SELECT ENAME,MIN(SAL) FROM EMP;

SELECT ENAME,MIN(SAL) FROM EMP
*
ERROR at line 1:
SQL> SELECT ENAME,SAL FROM EMP
2 WHERE SAL=(SELECT MIN(SAL) FROM EMP);

ENAME SAL

---------- ----------

SMITH 800

The following example retrieves the employees who

have the same job as that of BLAKE
SQL> SELECT ENAME,JOB
2 FROM EMP
3 WHERE JOB=(SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE
ENAME='BLAKE');
ENAME JOB
To find details of employees whose salary is
greater than maximum salary of sales department.

SQL> SELECT ENAME,JOB,HIREDATE,SAL FROM EMP

2 WHERE SAL > (SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP
3 WHERE DEPTNO=(SELECT DEPTNO FROM DEPT WHERE
DNAME='SALES'));
ENAME JOB HIREDATE SAL

---------- --------- --------- ----------

JONES MANAGER 02-APR-81 2975

SCOTT ANALYST 19-APR-87 3000

KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000

Subqueries returning multiple rows

To retrieve ename,salary,deptno of employees who

draw minimum salary in each department.

SQL> SELECT ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP

2 WHERE SAL IN (SELECT MIN(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP
BY DEPTNO);

ENAME SAL DEPTNO

---------- ---------- ----------

SMITH 800 20

JAMES 950 30

MILLER 1300 10
To query the department which has the avg(sal)
greater to that of department 30.

SQL> SELECT DEPTNO,AVG(SAL) FROM EMP

2 HAVING AVG(SAL) > (SELECT AVG(SAL) FROM EMP

3 WHERE DEPTNO=30)
4 GROUP BY DEPTNO;

DEPTNO AVG(SAL)

---------- ----------

10 2916.66667

20 2175
To retrieve the maximum average salary for JOB

SQL> SELECT JOB,AVG(SAL)

2 FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB
3 HAVING AVG(SAL)=(SELECT MAX(AVG(SAL)) FROM
EMP GROUP BY JOB);

JOB AVG(SAL)

--------- ----------

Show all employees who5000

PRESIDENT were hired on the day of the week on which the highest
number of employees has been hired.
Select ename from (SELECT DY,CNT FROM (SELECT
TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,‘DY') DAY,COUNT(1) CNT FROM EMP
GROUP BY TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,‘DY') ORDER BY CNT DESC)
WHERE ROWNUM<=1)
 The SET Operators

 SET Operators are used to combine information of similar type

from one or more than one table

 Datatype of corresponding columns must be the same

 The types of SET operators in ORACLE are :

 UNION : Rows of first query plus rows of second

query, less duplicate rows

 INTERSECT : Common rows from all the queries

 MINUS : Rows unique to the first query

 The SET Operators
A B A B

UNION/UNION ALL

A B

INTERSECT

A B

MINUS
UNION
SELECT ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10
UNION
SELECT ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=20

INTERSECT
SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10
INTERSECT
SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=20

MINUS
SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10
MINUS
SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=20
MINUS
SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=30
 PRACTICE SESSIONS
1. Display the different designations in department 20 and 30:

2. Use order by clause for the above query

3. List the jobs common to department 20 and 30:
4. List the jobs unique to department 20:
5. List the employees belonging to the department of MILLER:
6. List the names of the employee drawing the highest salary:

7. List the names of the employees, who earn lowest salary in each
department:
8. List employee details who earn salary greater than the average
salary for their department.
9. List the job with highest average salary.
10. List the names of the employees, who earn lowest salary in each
department:
 Creating Tables
• Create the table.

CREATE TABLE dept1

(deptno NUMBER(2),
dname VARCHAR2(14),
loc VARCHAR2(13));
Table created.
• Confirm creation of the table.
DESCRIBE dept1
 What Are Constraints?
• Constraints enforce rules at the table
level.
• Constraints prevent the deletion of a
table if there are dependencies.
• The following constraint types are valid:
– NOT NULL
– UNIQUE
– PRIMARY KEY
– FOREIGN KEY
– CHECK
 Alter,Modify,Drop
ALTER TABLE
Add clause
– Add new columns
– Add constraints

Modify clause
– Add not null constraint
– Change column data type
– Modify columnsize(width)

Drop clause
– Drop Columns
– Drop Constraints
 Adding a Column
New column
DEPT80

Add a new
column to the
DEPT80 table.

DEPT80
 Adding a Column
• Use the ADD clause to add columns.

ALTER TABLE dept80

ADD (job_id VARCHAR2(9));
Table altered.

• The new column becomes the last

column.
 Modifying a Column
• You can change a column’s data
type, size, and default value.
ALTER TABLE dept80
MODIFY (last_name VARCHAR2(30));
Table altered.

• A change to the default value affects

only subsequent insertions to the
table.
 Dropping a Column

Use the DROP COLUMN clause to drop

columns you no longer need from the
table.

ALTER TABLE dept80

DROP COLUMN job_id;
Table altered.
alter table e2 add constraint p primary key ( empno)
Alter table e2 drop constraint p;
 Dropping a Table
• All data and structure in the table is
deleted.
• Any pending transactions are committed.
• All indexes are dropped.
• You cannot roll back the DROP TABLE
statement.

DROP TABLE dept80;

Table dropped.
Changing the Name of an Object
• To change the name of a table, view,
sequence, or synonym, execute the
RENAME statement.
RENAME dept TO detail_dept;
Table renamed.

• You must be the owner of the object.

 Truncating a Table
• The TRUNCATE TABLE statement:
– Removes all rows from a table
– Releases the storage space used by
that table

TRUNCATE TABLE detail_dept;

Table truncated.

• You cannot roll back row removal

when using TRUNCATE.
• Alternatively, you can remove rows
by using the DELETE statement.
 STATEMENT DESCRIPTION
INSERT Adds a new row to the table

UPDATE Modifies existing rows in the table

DELETE Removes all/particular existing rows from the

table
COMMIT Makes all changes permanent

SAVEPOINT Used to divide the transactions

ROLLBACK Discards all pending data changes

 STATEMENT DESCRIPTION
CREATE TABLE Creates a table

ALTER TABLE Modifies table structures

DROP TABLE Removes the rows & table structure

RENAME Changes the name of object (table, view etc)

TRUNCATE Removes all rows from table

 GRANT & REVOKE
GRANT IS USED FOR GIVING PRIVILEGES TO USERS

REVOKE IS USED TO WITHDRAW THE PRIVILEGES FROM USERS

TYPES OF PRIVILEGES
•SYSTEM
Create session, table etc

•OBJECT
select, insert, delete,update
 What Is a Sequence?
A sequence:
• Automatically generates unique
numbers
• Is a sharable object
• Is typically used to create a primary
key value
• Replaces application code
• Speeds up the efficiency of accessing
sequence values when cached in
memory
 The CREATE SEQUENCE
Statement Syntax

Define a sequence to generate sequential

numbers automatically.

CREATE
CREATE SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE sequence
sequence
[INCREMENT
[INCREMENT BYBY n]
n]
[START
[START WITH
WITH n]
n]
[{MAXVALUE
[{MAXVALUE nn || NOMAXVALUE}]
NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUE
[{MINVALUE nn || NOMINVALUE}]
NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE
[{CYCLE || NOCYCLE}]
NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHE
[{CACHE nn || NOCACHE}];
NOCACHE}];
 Creating a Sequence
• Create a sequence named
DEPT_DEPTID_SEQ to be used for the
primary key of the DEPARTMENTS table.
• Do not use the CYCLE option.
CREATE
CREATE SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq
dept_deptid_seq
INCREMENT
INCREMENT BY
BY 10
10
START
START WITH
WITH 120
120
MAXVALUE
MAXVALUE 9999
9999
NOCACHE
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;
NOCYCLE;
Sequence
Sequence created.
created.
 Confirming Sequences

• Verify your sequence values in the

USER_SEQUENCES data dictionary
table.sequence_name,
SELECT
SELECT sequence_name, min_value,
min_value, max_value,
max_value,
increment_by,
increment_by, last_number
last_number
FROM
FROM user_sequences;
user_sequences;

• The LAST_NUMBER column displays

the next available sequence number if
NOCACHE is specified.
 NEXTVAL and CURRVAL
Pseudocolumns
• NEXTVAL returns the next available
sequence value.
It returns a unique value every time it is
referenced,
even for different users.
• CURRVAL obtains the current sequence
value.
• NEXTVAL must be issued for that
sequence before CURRVAL contains a
value.
 Using a Sequence
• Insert a new department named
“Support” in location ID 2500.
INSERT
INSERT INTO
INTO departments(department_id,
departments(department_id,
department_name,
department_name, location_id)
location_id)
VALUES
VALUES (dept_deptid_seq.NEXTVAL,
(dept_deptid_seq.NEXTVAL,
'Support',
'Support', 2500);
2500);
11 row
row created.
created.

SELECT
SELECT dept_deptid_seq.CURRVAL
dept_deptid_seq.CURRVAL
FROM
FROM dual;
dual;
• View the current value for the
DEPT_DEPTID_SEQ sequence.
 Using a Sequence
• Caching sequence values in memory
gives faster access to those values.
• Gaps in sequence values can occur
when:
– A rollback occurs
– The system crashes
– A sequence is used in another table
• If the sequence was created with
NOCACHE, view the next available
value, by querying the
USER_SEQUENCES table.
 Removing a Sequence

• Remove a sequence from the data

dictionary by using the DROP
SEQUENCE statement.
• Once removed, the sequence can no
longer be referenced.

DROP
DROP SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq;
dept_deptid_seq;
Sequence
Sequence dropped.
dropped.
 SEQUENCES

1.Create a sequence to be used with the primary key column of the DEPT table. The
sequence should start at 200 and have a maximum value of 1000. Have your
sequence increment by ten numbers. Name the sequence DEPT_ID_SEQ.

2.Write a query in a script to display the following information about your sequences:
sequence name, maximum value, increment size, and last number.

3 Write a script to insert two rows into the DEPT table. Be sure to use the sequence
that you created for the ID column. Add two departments named Education and
Administration. Confirm your additions.