Unix Structure

Copyright IBM Corporation 2011
IBM Global Business Services

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Welcome
Welcome
Unix structure and Commands 1

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Unix Structure and
Commands
Copyright IBM Corporation 2011 Unix structure and Commands 2
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Objectives
By the end of this module on Unix structure and commands, you should be able to:

Discuss the basics of Unix File System
Put into practice file handling commands
Define vi Editor basics
Identify command substitution, filters, and pipes
Illustrate locating files with find
Demonstrate the xargs command

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Agenda
This module on Unix structure and commands includes:

Introduction
Unix File System
File Handling Commands
vi Editor Basics
Command substitution, filters and pipes
Locating files with find
xargs command


Topic 1: Introduction
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Sub-topics covered
The sub-topics covered in this module include:

Operating system
History of Unix
Features of Unix
Architecture of Unix

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Operating system
The operating system can be defined as follows:

It is the interface between hardware and user.

It is responsible for management and coordination of
activities and sharing of resources of computer.

It acts as host for computing applications that run
on the machine.

It provides applications access OS services through
APIs or System Calls.

It provides two types of interfaces to the users, namely
Command Line Interface and Graphical User Interface.
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History of Unix
Here is a timeline that shows how Unix developed over time:

In 1969, UNIX first originated in form of Multics at Bell Laboratories.

In 1974, Thompson and Ritchie both published a paper regarding UNIX in
Communications of ACM.

By 1977, several UNIX systems were used in Universities. Between 1977 to 1982,
UNIX
System III was released by Bell Laboratories.

By the start of 1984, the use of UNIX systems significantly increased.

Linux is a complete rewrite of Unix, developed by Linus Tourvalds, when he was a
Finnish undergraduate.
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Features of Unix
The feature of Unix are listed below:

Portable: Unix OS can be installed on any architecture.

Multi-user: Multiple users can access the system and share its resources.

Multi-tasking: Multiple tasks can be initiated and run simultaneously.

Time-sharing: Server shares CPU time between requesting processes.

Hierarchical file organization: / (root) is at the top of hierarchy and the various other
file systems are below that.

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The architecture of Unix includes:

System components
Kernel
Shell

The system components are
shown in the diagram here.

Architecture of Unix
Hardware
Kernel
Shell Shell
sed
ps
grep
ls
who
tar
sort
cp
X-Window
cc
Other
Compilers
Various Text
Processors
Spread
Sheets
Browsers
Different
Databases
Other
Softwares
User 2 User 1
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The architecture of Unix, especially kernel, is defined
below:

This is the core of Operating System.

It functions as the Hardware interface.

It contains system calls that perform
low-level tasks.

It generates inode-numbers for newly created files and
maintains inode tables.

It generates process-IDs for newly created processes
and maintains process control blocks.
Architecture of Unix: Kernel
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The architecture of Unix, especially shell, is defined below:

User interface: Shell provides an interface to the user, wherein the user could issue his
or her commands, and shell displays output and error messages to the user.

Command interpreter: Shell accepts command from user and interprets it to the kernel.

Command processor: Shell parses the command line arguments, expands the special
meaning of meta characters, searches for the command, and if the command is found,
then transfers control to the command.

Programming language: Shell provides a native programming language.

Architecture of Unix: Shell
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Questions and answers
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Knowledge check
What is the interface between the hardware and the user?

Who developed Unix?

Enumerate three features of Unix.


Topic 2: UNIX File System
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Sub-topics covered
The sub-topics covered in this topic include:

File system
Inode table
Directory structure
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File system is a way of organizing files in the secondary storage device. The Unix file
system is partitioned into four partitions:

Boot Block: Programs associated with booting of the system are stored in this block.

Super Block: This stores accounting information about the file system.

Inode Block: This stores inode tables.

Data Block: This stores data.

File system
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Every file in Unix file system has an inode table, which stores meta data of the file.
The Inode table stores the following information about the file:

Inode table

File
Type

Permission
Mode

User
Id

Group
Id

File
Size
Bytes

Modification
Time

Access
Time

Inode
Updation
Time

Ptrs
To
Data
Block

Ord.

644

Tom

Ken

85

14-Jun-09
09:11:45

14-Jun-09
09:11:45

18-Jun-09
15:12

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Inode table: Block addressing scheme
Inode table consists of 13 fields, each containing addresses to a block each.
The first 10 address fields contains addresses of a data block each. This is direct addressing.
Number of data blocks addressed: 10.

The 11th field contains address of an address block, the addresses of which point to a data
block each. This is single indirect addressing. Number of data blocks addressed: 128.

12th field contains address of an address block, the addresses of which point to an address
block each, each of the addresses of which point to data blocks; Number of data blocks
addressed: 128 * 128.

13th field contains address of an address block, the addresses of which points to an
address block each; each of the address of these address blocks point to an address block
each, through which, data blocks are pointed. Number of data blocks addressed.
128 * 128 * 128.
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Directory structure
Directory structure in Unix is an inverted tree structure, wherein the root (/) directory is at
the top of the hierarchy and the subdirectories are placed as children of the root.

/
etc dev sbin bin usr tmp

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There are two means of referencing of files, including:

Absolute referencing: The referencing of a file done with reference to the root directory, /
Examples:
$ cd /usr/include # changes to /usr/include directory
$ ls /dev/tty # lists the file /dev/tty

Relative referencing: The referencing of a file done relative to the working directory.
Current directory and parent to current directory are referred by shortcuts . and ..
respectively.

Examples:
$ cd cppdir # changes to subdirectory cppdir
Directory structure: Referencing of files
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IBM
Knowledge check
What are the four partitions of the Unix file system?

Enumerate three types of information stored in the Inode table.

What is the referencing of a file done relative to the working directory?


Topic 2: UNIX file system
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Sub-topics covered

File system
Inode table
Directory structure
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pwd: Knowing your present working directory

$ pwd <Enter>
/home/sachin
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ls: Listing files and subdirectories in any directory

$ ls <Enter>
abc.txt s.sh test.c dir1

$ ls /home/sachin <Enter>
pmode.sh fibonacci.c profile.txt

$ ls l <Enter>
-rwxr-xr-x 1 sachin football 512 feb 23 12:37 abc.txt
-rwxr-xr-x 1 sachin football 20 mar 12 14:16 s.sh
-rwxr-xr-x 1 sachin football 134 apr 4 09:11 test.c

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ls: Listing files and subdirectories in any directory

$ ls l /home/sachin <Enter>
-rwxr-xr-x 1 sachin football 36 mar 3 17:25 pmode.sh
-rwxr-xr-x 1 sachin football 114 jan 24 20:12 fibonacci.c
-rwxr-xr-x 1 sachin football 50 apr 5 10:20 profile.txt

$ ls -a <Enter>

$ ls -a /usr/sachin<Enter>

$ ls -a | more<Enter>

$ ls -lrt
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$ cd <Enter>
$ pwd <Enter>
/home/sachin

$ cd /usr/lib <Enter>
$ pwd <Enter>
/usr/lib

$ cd ..<Enter>
$ pwd <Enter>
/usr

cd: Changing Directory
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$ cd bin<Enter>
$ pwd <Enter>
/usr/bin

$ cd ../..<Enter>
$ pwd <Enter>
/

$ cd -
$ pwd <Enter>
(Takes you to the previous directory)

cd: Changing Directory (continued)
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$ cd /home/sachin
$ mkdir playdt <Enter>
$ cd playdt <Enter>
$ pwd <Enter>
/home/sachin/playdt

$ mkdir /home/sachin/playdt/millnm <Enter>
$ cd mar <Enter>
$ pwd <Enter>
/home/sachin/playdt/millnm

mkdir: Creating new directory or subdirectory
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$ mkdir p thisyr/mar/firstprd<Enter>
$ cd thisyr/mar/firstprd <Enter>
$ pwd <Enter>
/home/sachin/playdt/millnm/ thisyr/mar/firstprd

mkdir: Creating new directory or subdirectory (continued)
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The removing criteria for the directory or subdirectory to be removed is as follows:

It should not be the current directory
It should be vacant

$ cd /home/sachin/playdt/millnm/thisyr/mar
$ pwd <Enter>
/home/sachin/playdt/millnm/thisyr/mar
$ rmdir firstprd <Enter>
$ cd .. <Enter>
$pwd <Enter>
/home/sachin/playdt/millnm/thisyr

rmdir: Removing existing directory or subdirectory
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$ mkdir /home/sachin/playdt/millnm/thisyr/mar <Enter>
$ cd .. <Enter>
$ pwd <Enter>
/home/sachin/playdt/millnm

$ cd ../.. <Enter>
$ pwd <Enter>
/home/sachin
$ rmdir p /playdt/millnm <Enter>

rmdir: Removing existing directory or subdirectory (continued)
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Some file-oriented commands include:

cat
mv
cp
rm
chmod

Some file oriented commands
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$ cat profile.txt <Enter>
My company name is IBM.
My work location is Kolkata.

$ cat /user/sachin/pmode.sh <Enter>
echo The working mode is Learning.

$ cat profile.txt pmode.sh <Enter>
My company name is IBM.
My work location is Kolkata.
echo The working mode is Learning.

cat: Displaying the content of one or more file
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$ mv /home/sachin/fibonacci.c /usr/bin <Enter>

$ mv /home/sachin/fibonacci.c /usr/bin/fibonacci.c <Enter>

$ mv /home/sachin/fibonacci.c /home/sachin/pmode.sh /usr/bin <Enter>

$ mv /home/sachin/fibonacci.c /home/sachin/fibbo.c <Enter>

$ cd /home/sachin <Enter>
$ mv fibo.c fibonacci.c <Enter>

mv: Moving file from one directory or subdirectory to another
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$ cp /home/sachin/fibonacci.c /home/sachin/fb.c <Enter>

$ cp pmode.sh p.sh <Enter>

cp: Copying of one file to another
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$ cp /home/sachin/fb.c /home/sachin/p.sh /usr/bin <Enter>

$ cp fibonacci.c pmode.sh /usr <Enter>

cp: Copying files from source directory to another
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$ rm /home/sachin/fb.c <Enter>

$ rm /home/sachin/fibo.c /home/sachin/p.sh <Enter>

$ rm fibbo.c <Enter>

$ rm f.c pm.sh <Enter>

$ rm * <Enter>
(Use the above command with great caution)

rm: Deleting one or more files
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Interactive Mode:

$ rm i fb.c <Enter>
fb.c: ? y

Force Mode:

$ rm f p.sh <Enter>

Recursive Mode:

$ rm r /home/sachin <Enter>
$ rm r * <Enter>(Recursive removal of files )

rm: Several options
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$ date <Enter>
Mon Apr 23 11:23:34 IST 2007

date: Displaying system date
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d =>Day (for example, 23)
m =>Month Number (for example, 10)
y =>Rightmost Two Digits of Year (for example, 07 for 2007)
a =>Short Name of Week Day (for example, Mon)
h =>Short Name of Month (for example, Apr)
H =>The Hour in 24 Hour Format (for example, 20)
M =>Minute (for example, 34)
S =>Second (for example, 12)

date: Several format specifiers
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$ date +%a <Enter>
Mon

$ date +%H %M <Enter>
11 34

$ date +%H : %M <Enter>
11 : 34

date: Use of several format specifies
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$ cal 2007 <Enter>

$ cal <Enter>

$ cal apr <Enter>

$ cal 2007 | more <Enter>

cal: Displaying calendar
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$ banner IBM KOLKATA <Enter>
IBM
KOLKATA

$ banner IBM KOL <Enter>
IBM KOL

$ banner IBM KOL IT WORK <Enter>
IBM KOL
IT WORK
banner: Displaying posters for any text
Output will be
much bigger than
shown here.
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Locking without time specification:

$ lock <Enter>
password: ****** <Enter>
Reenter password: ****** <Enter>
Terminal locked by sachin 0 minutes ago.

Locking with time specification:

$ lock -20 <Enter>
..

lock: Locking the system without logging out
Locking for 30
Minutes, if time not
specified during
command
invocation
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Waits for All:

$ wait <Enter>

Waits for Some Specific One:

$ wait 232 <Enter>
( wait for process id 232 )

wait: Waits for finishing of the system background process
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$ echo Delay Invocation; sleep 20; echo Back Again After 20 Sec
<Enter>
Delay Invocation Back Again After 20 Sec

Delay of 20 Seconds

sleep: Invoking delay
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$ who <Enter>
root console apr 23 15:23
sachin tty01 apr 23 15:24
sh tty02 apr 23 15:25

who: Aiding in being acquainted with all logged-in users
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$ who am I <Enter>
sachin tty01 apr 23 15:24

who am I: To know current user, who has issued command
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$ uname -n <Enter>
sachdev

uname n: Knowing computers name in network
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$ tty <Enter>
/dev/tty01

tty: To be acquainted with the name of users terminal
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$ tput cup 15 28 <Enter>
$-

tput cup: Cursor positioning at desired location
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$ tput clear <Enter>
$-

tput clear: Monitor screen clearing
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$ tput smso <Enter>
echo Tutorial For Highlighting Displayable Text. <Enter>
$ tput rmso <Enter>

tput smso and tput rmso: Highlighting displayable text
Tutorial for Highlighting Displayable Text
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$ bc <Enter>
7+17 <Enter>
24
12/7 <Enter>
1
9 9 ; 3 ^3 ; 4 * 5 <Enter>
0
27
20
<ctrl +d>
$_

bc: Performing numeric calculation
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$ bc <Enter>
ibase =2 <Enter>
1001 <Enter>
9
obase=2
11 <Enter>
1011
scale=3 <Enter>
10/3 <Enter>
3.333
<ctrl +d>
$_

bc: Performing numeric calculation (continued)
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$ bc <Enter>
r=9 ; s=4 ; <Enter>
t=r-s <Enter>
t <Enter>
5
<ctrl +d>
$_

$ x=3 <Enter>
$ y=`echo $x +4 | bc` <Enter>
$ echo $y <Enter>
7
bc: Performing numeric calculation (continued)
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UNIX:

$ spell /home/sachin/profile.txt <Enter>

$ spell profile.txt <Enter>

LINUX:

$ ispell /home/sachin/profile.txt <Enter>

$ ispell profile.txt <Enter>
spell / ispell: Checking of spellings
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The wildcard characters basics include:

? => Must be One Character, Any character

* => Can be Zero or Any Number of Characters, Any Character

[L] where L is a set of characters placed without separation => One character, anyone
character from L.
Wildcard characters basics
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$ ls * <Enter>

$ ls l p*.?? <Enter>

$ cat ?????.sh <Enter>

$ ls p[rm]* <Enter>
Wildcard characters: Examples
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$ chmod u+x profile.txt <Enter>

$ chmod g+rw profile.txt <Enter>

$ chmod o-r profile.txt <Enter>

$ chmod +wx profile.txt <Enter>

$ chmod x profile.txt <Enter>

$ chmod go -w profile.txt <Enter>

$ chmod u=rwx, go=rx profile.txt <Enter>
chmod: Altering file access permissions using symbols
Several Symbols
u => File Owner
g => Group Owner
o => Other User
r => Read
w => Write
x => Execute
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$ chmod 741 profile.txt <Enter>



chmod: Altering file access permissions using numbers
Several Numbers
0 => No Permission Is Present
1 => Execute Only
2 => Write Only
3 (2+1) => Write & Execute
4 => Read Only
5 (4+1) => Read & Execute
6 (4+2) => Read & Write
7 (4+2+1) => Read, Write & Execute
Several Permission Weights
Read => 4
Write => 2
Execute => 1
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Running processes related to current user at current terminal:

$ ps <Enter>
PID TTY TIME CMD
234 tty01 00:00:02 sh
684 tty01 00:00:00 ps

All Running User and System Processes:

UNIX: $ ps -e <Enter>

LINUX: $ ps -ax <Enter>
ps: Knowing about running processes of system
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Details of running processes related to current user at current terminal:

UNIX: $ ps -f <Enter>

LINUX: $ ps -u <Enter>

ps: Knowing about running processes of system (continued)
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INPUT REDIRECTION:

$ cat <profile.txt <Enter>
$ cat 0<profile.txt <Enter>

OUTPUT REDIRECTION:

$ cat profile.txt >pmode.sh <Enter>
$ cat profile.txt >>fibbonacci.c <Enter>

ERROR REDIRECTION:

$ cat pl.txt 2>err.txt<Enter>
Redirection: Altering input, output, or error files for a command

Topic 4: vi Editor Basics
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Sub-topics covered

vi Editor Basics
Mode commands
Repeat factor
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vi Editor is a powerful full-screen editor for UNIX. Texts, numbers, commands, and more
can be inserted to any file through this. For file creation, editing, and the like, this
is used extensively in UNIX.

vi Editor can be invoked with the following command: $ vi viexmpl.sh <Enter>

Some of the important modes of vi Editor include:

Input Mode
Command Mode

vi Editor: Introduction
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vi Editor: Toggling between important modes and Shell
Shell
Command
Mode
Input
Mode
Vi filename <Enter>
<Esc>
i, a, I, A etc.
:wq, :q!, :x etc.
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Several Input Mode Commands in vi Editor
Some input mode commands in vi Editor include:

i: Inputs text at left of current cursor position.
a: Appends text at right of current cursor position.
I: Inputs text at starting of current line.
A: Appends text at the end position of current line.
R: Replaces (overwrites) text from current cursor position to right direction.
S: Replaces the full line in which the cursor is.

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Several essential command mode commands in vi Editor

:x (or :wq): Saves and Exits from vi Editor.
:q!: Quits from vi Editor without Save.
:w: Saves current file and dont exit the vi Editor.
h: Shifts the cursor to one character left.
J: Shifts the cursor to one line down.
K: Shifts the cursor to one line up.
l: Shifts the cursor to one character right.
4h: Shifts the cursor to four characters left.
5j: Shifts the cursor to five lines down.
6k: Shifts the cursor to six lines up.
7l: Shifts the cursor to seven characters right.

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More essential command mode commands in vi Editor

|: Cursor reaches the beginning of current line.
$: Cursor reaches the beginning of current line.
<ctrl+f>: Scrolls forward one page.
<ctrl+b>: Scrolls backward one page.
20G: Cursor reaches 20th line of the current file.
15|: Cursor reaches 15th column of current line.
1G: Cursor reaches the Starting of the current file.
G: Cursor reaches the end of the current file.
x: Erases the current character.
4x: Erases current character and three next characters.
d15G: Erases all from current cursor position to 15th line.
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Additional essential command mode commands in vi Editor

dd: Erases full current line.
7dd: Erases full current line and next six lines.
. : Applies the last editing command used.
u: Undoes the last editing operation performed.
J: Joins the current line with the next line.
7yy: Copies the current line and next six lines together.
p: Pastes the copied content after the current cursor position.
~ : Changes current character case to the reverse one.
15~: Changes current and next 14 character case to the reverse one.
1p: Restores latest erase work performed.
3p: Restores latest three erase work performed.
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Repeat factor in vi Editor
In Command Mode:

10i^<Enter>
or
10i^<Esc>

Will enter consecutive 10 ^
that is, ^^^^^^^^^^
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Some search commands include:

/IBM: Searches in forward direction for pattern IBM in current file.
?kolkata: Searches in backward direction for pattern kolkata in current file.

Some substitute commands include:

:1,25s/Calcutta/Kolkata/: Replaces first occurrence of Calcutta with Kolkata
between lines 1 to 25 in current file.
:1,25s/Calcutta/Kolkata/g: Replaces all occurrence of Calcutta with Kolkata
between lines 1 to 25 in current file.
:.,$s/Calcutta/Kolkata/gc: Replaces Calcutta with Kolkata interactively between
current line and end of current file.
Commands

Topic 5: Command Substitution, Filters, and Pipes
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Sub-topics covered

Command substitution
Filters
Pipes

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Command substitution is the technique of passing a commands output as argument to
another command. The command that passes output as argument can be called as inner
command. The command that receives the output of another command as its argument,
can be called as outer command. Here is an example:

$ echo "Today's date is `date`
Today's date is Tue Apr 7 15:14:41 IST 200
$ echo "No. of files in $PWD is $(ls|wc -l)
No. of files in /home/murali is 45

Command substitution
Explanation: The meta-characters ` `(pair of backticks) and $() are known as command
substitution meta-characters. When a command is issued, shell first parses the command line
arguments; the shell first expands special meaning of these meta-characters; hence, shell first
executes the command specified within `` or $() and places Output of this command as
argument to the main command; then, Shell transfers control to the main command.
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This refers to a command which, by default, expects input from standard input file and
sends processed output to standard output file.

Here is a list of some filters:

uniq
tr
tee
pr
cut
paste
bc

Filters
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It translates consecutive identical entries from the input file, into unique entries. These
include:

$ cat domestics
dog
goat
goat
goat
horse
$ uniq domestics
dog
goat
horse

Filters: Unique
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Here is an example of unique filters:

c option
$ cat domestics
dog
goat
goat
$ uniq -c domestics
1 dog
2 goat

Filters: Unique (continued)
Explanation of code:
With c option, uniq command displays number
of consecutive occurrences of the identical
entries and also the unique entries.

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It translates all occurrences of a set of characters in the first expression to corresponding
set of characters in second expression, from the input file.

Syntax:

tr exp1 exp2 < file1

Options:

S: This will squeeze multiple consecutive occurrences of a specified set of
characters to single occurrence.
D: This deletes the specified set of characters from the string.
Cd: This complement deletes the specified set of characters from the string.

Filters: tr
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Here is an example of tr filters:

$ cat >text1
a quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog
$ tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]' <text1
A QUICK BROWN FOX J UMPED OVER THE LAZY DOG
$

Filters: tr (example)
The tr command translates all occurrences of
lower-case alphabets to corresponding
upper-case alphabets in the file text1;
it displays the output.
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Here is another example of tr filters:

$ cat mydirinfo
total 12
-rw-r--r-- 1 murali murali 0 2009-03-25 12:48 chap1
-rwxr--r-- 1 murali murali 133 2009-03-25 12:48 myfunctions
$ tr -s ' ' <mydirinfo
total 12
-rw-r--r-- 1 murali murali 0 2009-03-25 12:48 chap1
-rwxr--r-- 1 murali murali 133 2009-03-25 12:48 myfunctions

Filters: tr (example) (continued)
The tr command squeezes consecutive multiple occurrences of space character to single
occurrence in the input file mydirinfo, and displays output.
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Here is another example of tr filters using d option:

$ cat >numfile
78343hhdfdh434384
834893849&*&*&dfdhfhdj
4839483jhdjfhdjf
hsdjfhdjfhdj4738473
jdfjdhf384738
$ tr -d '[a-z&*]' <numfile
78343434384
834893849
4839483
4738473
384738
Filters: tr (example: d option)
The tr command removes lower-case
alphabets, the characters & and *
from the input file numfile, and
displays output.
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Here is another example of tr filters using cd option:

$ cat >numfile
78343hhdfdh434384
834893849&*&*&dfdhfhdj
4839483jhdjfhdjf
hsdjfhdjfhdj4738473
jdfjdhf384738
$ tr -cd '[0-9\n]' <numfile
78343434384
834893849
4839483
4738473
384738
Filters: tr (example: cd option)
The tr command removes all other
characters except digit characters and
newline characters from the input file
numfile, and displays output.
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It examines and counts the number of arguments say, n issued to it, creates n+1 copies of
the input it receives, and writes n copies to the n files specified to it as arguments, and one
copy to the standard output file.

Syntax:

tee file1 file2 file3

Filters: tee
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It paginates or columnates files for printing.

Syntax:

pr [ file1 file2 file3 ]

Options:

D: This will double space the output.
D: This will use format for the header date.
L: This sets the page length.
W: This sets the page width.

Filters: pr
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It extracts specified characters or fields from the input file.

Syntax:

cut [<option(s)>] [<file(s)>]

Options:

c: Used to specify the characters, that have to be extracted from every line of input file
d: Used to specify field delimiter, based on which, cut would understand the fields
f: Used to specify the number of the fields that have to be extracted

Filters: cut
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It expects two files as input files, joins corresponding lines of the two files, and sends the
output to standard output file.

Syntax:

paste [<option(s)>] [<file1>] [<file2>]

Filters: paste
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Performs calculation on the input expression. Takes input for standard input and sends
processed output to standard output.

Syntax:

bc
bc calcfile #calcfile contains expression

Examples:

$ bc #issues input interrupt
5^3 #finds 5 raised to power of 3
125 #and displays output on screen
quit #terminates bc program
$ #and returns control back to shell

Filters: bc
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A pipe is a communicating process. It receives output of one command and sends it as
input to another command.

command1 | command2

Example:
ls t | head -15
Output of ls command is passed on to head command as its input, through the pipe.

Pipes
Command1 Command2
IBM
IBM
Knowledge check
What is the command that receives the output of another command as its argument?

What filter extracts specified characters or fields from the input file?

What receives output of one command and sends it as input to another command?


Topic 6: Locating Files with find
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Sub-topics covered

find
find example
find example (2)
find example (3)
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It searches for the files with specified criteria, recursively starting from the specified
directory, and takes action on those files. The default action is print.

Syntax:

find <path><operator><expression><action>

Examples:

$ find $HOME -name "*.korn" -print
/home/murali/korndir/namechange.korn
/home/murali/korndir/untilDemo.korn
/home/murali/korndir/cmdArgs.korn
/home/murali/korndir/while2Demo.korn

find
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List of operators and their purpose:

find
-name : search for files matching specific names; find supports wild cards
-mtime n : File was last modified n*24 hours ago
-atime n : File was last accessed n*24 hours ago
-amin n : File was last accessed n minutes ago
-cmin n : Files status last changed n minutes ago
-mmin n : Files data was last modified n mins ago
-newer rfile : Files that are modified more recently than rfile
-inum n : File has inode number n.
-links n : File has n links
-user uname : File is owned by user uname (numeric user ID allowed).
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find
-size n[cwbkMG]: File uses n units of space.
The following suffixes can be used:
b : for 512 bytes blocks (this is default if no suffix is used)
C : for bytes
w : for two-byte words
k : for kilobytes (units of 1024 bytes)
M : for megabytes (units of 1048576 bytes)
G : for Gigabytes (units of 1073741824 bytes)
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find
-type c : file is of type c
b : block special
c : character special
d directory
p named pipe (FIFO)
f regular file
l symbolic link
s socket
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$ find /tmp -mtime +30 -print
find: /tmp/orbit-gdm: Permission denied
/tmp/mapping-root
find: /tmp/gconfd-user1: Permission denied

find: example (1)
find command recursively searches for files under the directory /tmp
which are not modified within past 30 days and prints them.
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find
-print: print the full file name on the standard output, followed by
a newline.

-exec: executes a unix command placing files output by find,
one, for each execution

-ok: executes a unix command placing files output by find, one,
for each execution non-interactively
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$ pwd
/home/murali
$ find . -links +1 -type f -print 2>/dev/null
./cppdir/new.cpp
./cppdir/vector1.cpp

find: example (1)
find searches recursively under home directory of user, for regular
files whose link count is more than one, that is, hard linked files.
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$ find / -size 0c -print 2>/dev/null|xargs ls -l 2>/dev/null 1>ZeroByteFiles &
[1] 30299

find: example (2)
find searches recursively under directory /, whose file size is zero bytes
and pipes output to xargs and xargs places. The list of files as arguments
to ls command; ls command redirects output to the file ZeroByteFiles and
errors are redirected to /dev/null; this command is run in background.
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$ find / -perm 777 -type f 2>/dev/null | xargs ls -l
-rwxrwxrwx 1 user20 user20 11688 2009-06-25 15:41
/home/user20/.bash_history
/home/user20/.bash_logout
/home/user20/.bash_profile
-rwxrwxrwx 1 user20 user20 124 2009-03-06 15:43 /home/user20/.bashrc
find: example (2) (continued)
The find command recursively lists all regular files under the directory / whose
octal permission mode is 777; errors are discarded; xargs receives list of files
output by find through pipe and places this list as arguments to ls command, and
transfers control to ls command; ls command displays long-listing of these files.
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$ touch -t 07070900 myreffile
$ find $HOME -newer myreffile -print 2>/dev/null
/home/murali
/home/murali/.lesshst
/home/murali/ZeroByteFiles

find: example (3)
The find command recursively lists all files under the home directory of user, files
whose modification timestamp is later than the file, myreffile; find displays output
and sends errors to /dev/null.
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$ find . -mtime +365 -type f -exec ls -l {}\; #-exec executes a shell cmd
#on the output of find command
-rw-r--r-- 1 murali murali 658 2007-10-11 19:46 ./.zshrc
-rw-r--r-- 1 murali murali 33 2007-08-31 19:50 ./.bash_logout
$ find . -size 0 -type f -ok rm {}\; #-ok interactively confirms from user
<rm ... ./usrs_at_now >? Y #before executing shell command
<rm ... ./no_access_tmp >? Y #on every argument
<rm ... ./mynewerrfile >? n
<rm ... ./users >? y
<rm ... ./myperlscripts/scores_hash.pl >? n
<rm ... ./myperlscripts/mysubstitute.pl >? n
<rm ... ./cobolprogs >? y
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The find command recursively outputs all regular files under working
directory of user, which are not modified since the past 365 days;
exec action of find command places the files one by one as
argument to ls command and executes ls command.
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IBM
Knowledge check
find / -type f size +32 print

Output of the above command is:

a) Regular files that are greater than 32 bytes in size
b) Regular files that are greater than 32 MB in size
c) Regular files that are greater than 32 blocks in size
d) Regular files that are exactly 32 blocks in size


Topic 6: The xargs command
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Sub-topics covered

xargs
xargs commands
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It reads arguments from standard input, place theses as arguments to the shell command,
and runs the command on these arguments.

Syntax:

xargs <shell_command>

Example:

$ xargs grep "cout"
autodemo.c++
mynewprog.c++
autodemo.c++: cout<<++a<<endl;
autodemo.c++:// cout<<a<<endl;
mynewprog.c++: cout<<(10>5)<<"\t"<<(10<5)<<endl;
xargs
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Here is another example:

Example:

$ ls *.c++ | xargs tar -cvf cppArchive.tar
autodemo.c++
inheritance.c++
methOverriding.c++
mynewprog.c++
scope.c++
test.c++
virtualFunction.c++

$ ls -l cppArchive.tar
-rw-rw-r-- 1 murali murali 10240 2009-07-07 12:34 cppArchive.tar
xargs
IBM
Another example can be illustrated as follows:

Example:

$ find . -mtime +180 -type f -name "*.txt" | xargs -I {} -t mv {} {}.old
mv ./logFile.txt ./logFile.txt.old
mv ./links.txt ./links.txt.old
mv ./link.txt ./link.txt.old
xargs
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Some xargs commands include:

-I replace-str: It replaces occurrences of replace-str in the initial-arguments with
names read from standard input.
-t: It prints the command line on the standard error output before executing it.
- diff filename1.txt filename2.txt: It reports the difference between the files
- compress filename.txt: It compresses the filename filename.txt
tail f filename.txt: It lists the last entry of the file filenname.txt run time
mailx -s test email emailid < test.out: It sends an e-mail to emailid with the
subject test email with the content of the file test.out
passwd: It allows the user to change his or her password on the server
man command: It shows the manual page for the command

xargs commands
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IBM
Knowledge check
User types the command xargs at the $ prompt, and presses <enter> key. What is the
response?

User types the following command at the $ prompt; what is the response? $ find / 2>
/dev/null | xargs grep l DISPLAY > outfiles 2> /dev/null & tar tf shellprogs.tar | xargs cat |
more

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Tying the ends
By the end of this module on Unix Structure and Commands, you are expected to:

Paraphrase the basics of Unix File System
List file handling commands
Summarize vi editor basics
Analyze command substitution, filters, and pipes
Illustrate locating files with find
Interpret xargs command


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Unix Structure

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