Topic 3: Thermal Physics

3.1 Thermal concepts

This chapter is an introduction to thermal physics. It
introduces the concepts of temperature, heat, internal
energy and thermal equilibrium.
You should:

understand the concept of thermal equilibrium;
relate the Kelvin and Celsius scales of temperature;
know that internal energy is the total kinetic energy of the molecules of
a system plus the potential energy associated with the molecular forces.
Temperature
Intuitively: concept of hotness or coldness of a
substance with respect to something else.
To measure the temperature of a body we
need to find a property of the body that
changes as the hotness changes.
In 1742, Andreas Celsius created the
temperature scale that is known by his name.
0C Freezing point of water
100C Boiling point of water
Thermal Equilibrium
Two or more bodies are in thermal
equilibrium when they have the
same temperature.
Body A and body B are each in
thermal equilibrium with body C.
Therefore they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other and
hence have the same temperature
(Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics).
Absolute temperature scale
0 K = -273.15 C or 0C = 273.15 K
T = T
C
+ 273.15

T
C
= T -273.15
For practical purposes:

T = T
C
+ 273

T
C
= T -273
The temperature scale used in Physics is
the absolute temperature scale or Kelvin
scale. Its unit is the kelvin (K)
Temperature has a lower limit
0 K or absolute zero
Heat As Energy
Heat is energy that is transferred from one
body and into another as a result of a
difference of temperature.
Thus, when a hot object is brought in contact
with a colder body, heat will be transferred to
the colder body and increase its temperature.
We say that the colder body has been
heated.
Heat and work, unlike temperature, pressure, and volume, are not
intrinsic properties of a system.
Internal Energy
All substances consist of molecules in
constant motion. They therefore have
kinetic energy.
In addition, there are forces
between molecules
(electrical in nature).
Increasing the average
separation of two
molecules requieres work
to be done. This work goes
into potential energy
associated with
intermolecular forces.
Internal energy is the total kinetic energy of
the molecules of a sustance, plus any
potential energy associated with forces
between the molecules.
The heat that is transferred from a hot to a cold body increases the internal
energy of the cold body (and decreases the internal energy of the hot body
by the same amount
Temperature, again
The absolute temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the molecules of a substance. The average kinetic
energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature in kelvin.
We therefore have a relationship between a
microscopic concept and a macroscopic concept.
A hot body is brought into contact with a colder body until
their temperatures are the same. Assume that no other
bodies are around. Is the heat lost by one body equal to the
heat gained by the other? Is the temperature drop of one
body equal to the temperature increase by the other?
A body at a given uniform temperature of 300 K and internal
energy 8 x 10
6
J is split into two equal halves.
a) Has any heat been exchanged?
b) What is the temperature of each half?
c) What is the internal energy of each half?
The giant hornet Vespa
mandarinia japonica preys on
Japanese bees. However, if one
of the hornets attempts to
invade a bee hive, several
hundred of the bees quickly form
a compact ball around the
hornet to stop it. After 20
minutes the hornet is dead,
although the bees do not sting,
bite, crush, or suffocate it.
Why, then, does the hornet die?
Confusion around the concept
of thermal energy
Heat transfer (conduction)
Thermal conduction is the process by which a
temperature difference causes the transfer o thermal
energy from the hotter region of the body to the
colder region by particle collision without there being
any net movement of the substance itself.
Conduction can occur in solids,
liquids and gases.
Gases: Due to the collision between fast and slow moving particles where
kinetic energy is tranfered from the fast to the slow particle.
Liquids: Due to increased vibrational energy. Because the majority of the
particles are coupled to other particles they also begin to vibrate more
energetically.
Solids: Two ways. Similarly to liquids or by mobile electrons.
Heat transfer (convection)
Thermal convection is the process in which a temperature difference causes
the mass movement of fluid particles from areas of high thermal energy to
areas of low thermal energy (the colder region).
Liquids and gases can transfer heat
readily by convection.
Heat tranfer (radiation)
Thermal radiation is energy produced by a source
because of its temperature that travels as
electromagnetic waves. It does not need the
presence of matter for its tranfer.
Thermal radiation is mainly
electromagnetic waves in the
infra-red region of the
electromagnetic spectrum at
temperatures below 1000C.
The mole, molar mass and
Avogadros number
The mass of an atom is exceedingly small. For
example, the isotope carbon-12 is 1.99 x10
-23
g.
In 1961 the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry defined the masses of
atoms relative to carbon-12 that was
assigned a value of 12.0. Therefore, the
relative atomic mass is defined as the mass
of an atom when compared with 1/12 the
mass of carbon-12 atom.
Mass of carbon-12 = 12.000 u
Mass of oxygen = 16.000 u = 16/12 Mass of carbon-12
Mole
The SI fundamental unit for the amount of a substance is the
mole (mol).
The mole is the amount of substance that contains as many particles
(atoms, molecules) as there are in 12 g of carbon-12
Avogadro found that equal volumes of gases
at the same temperature and pressure
contained the same number of particles. One
mole of any gas contains the Avogadro
number of particles N
A
=6.02 x 10
23
, and it
occupies 22.4 dm3 at 0C and 101.3kPa
pressure (STP).
Molar mass of carbon-12 = 12 g/mol
Molar mass of oxygen = 16 g/ mol
Molar mass
M = m/n
Where M is the molar mass (g/mol) , m is
the mass (g), and n is the amount of
substance in moles.
n = N/N
A
Where N is the total number of
particles
Important note: When using the mole, the atoms or molecules should be clearly
stipulated. For example, one mole of copper atoms contains 6.02 x 10
23
cooper
atoms. One mole of nitrogen molecules (N
2
) contains 6.02 x 10
23
of nitrogen
molecules and 12.04 x 10
23
nitrogen atoms.
Example
1. Calculate the number of moles of oxygen molecules contained in 64 g
of oxygen gas, O
2
.


2. Calculate the number of oxygen molecules in part 1 of this example.


3. Determine the volume of oxygen gas that would be present at STP.


4. Calculate the mass in 0.75 mol of carbon dioxide gas.