Research methods

Lecturer: Isaac Amankwaa

Course Objectives
By the end of the course the student
will:
Define research
Describe various types of research
Describe the research process
Carry out a simple research

Course outline
Definition
Types of research
Identifying research problem
Objectives of the research
Statement of hypothesis
Operational definition
Literature review
Methodology
Research setting and population
Sampling method
Data collection, tools/methods, limitations
Dissemination of research report

What is Research?
Research means
to search again or
carefully examine
(Langford 2001)


Research defined
Research is systematic inquiry that uses
disciplined methods to answer questions or
solve problems.
(Polit and Beck, 2010).
Characteristics of nursing research
It demands a clear statement of the problem
It requires a plan, order and control
It builds on existing data
Based on theory of empiricism
Generalisation


Purpose of conducting research
Description
Exploration
Explanation
Prediction
Types of research
1. Basic
2. Applied research.
Basic research
Also called Fundamental or pure research
Studies are designed to seek knowledge
without specifying application of the
knowledge
Ex: examining xtics of a cell.
Applied research
Concerned with using knowledge to solve
immediate problems facing an organization.
Ex. Using to solve patient care difficulties,
educational concerns and administrative issues.
The nurse investigator contribute to some
modification of the present practices

Quantitative Research
Originated in the natural sciences such as
biology, chemistry, physics, geology
This is that is concerned with investigating
things which we could observe and measure in
some way.

Qualitative research
Origin: social sciences like psychology &
nursing.
Involves study of human behaviour & the
social world inhabited by human beings;
Answers the why and how questions.
Definition of nursing research
Nursing research is the systematic inquiry
designed to develop knowledge about issues of
importance to the nursing profession, including
nursing practice, education, administration, and
informatics.

(Polit and Beck, 2010)
Importance of Nursing Research
1. To promote evidence-based nursing practice:
nursing care must be based on accurate
knowledge.
2. To ensure credibility of the nursing
profession
3. Provide accountability for nursing practice
4. Document the Cost Effectiveness of Nursing
Care:
Sources of nursing knowledge
Tradition
Authority
Trial and error
Logical reasoning: comprises inductive
and deductive reasoning
Scientific research
The research process
1. Review of existing literature
2. Research questions
3. Method
4. Analysis
5. Presenting our findings


Chapter Two
Selecting a Research Topic
Chapter objectives
Enumerate the sources of nursing
research problems
List the various steps required to
select a research topic
Describe the criteria for prioritising a
research problem
Select their own research topic that
is relevant to nursing

Introduction
What is a problem?
A situation that lends itself to
be addressed through
application of the research
process
Sources of research problem
Experience from clinical practice
Nursing literature
Ideas from external sources
colleagues
Procedure for identifying research
problem
Select a broad topic of interest
Refine/narrow down
Evaluate significance of topic

Identifying research problem
Select broad topic area
Write down general area of interest
E.g. cancer patients in pain
Selecting Research Problem
Refine/narrow down the topic
Ask questions
Review literature
Talk to people
Is your topic significant?
A research topic must meet the following
conditions
1. The should be perceived difference betweenwhat
exist and the ideal or planned situation
2. The reason(s) for the difference shd be unclear
3. There should be more than one possible answer
to the question or solution to the problem.

Prioritising Research: Criteria
1. Significance of the problem:
Is the problem an important one?
Will patients, nurses etc. benefit from the
evidence that will be produced?
Will the results lead to practical
applications?
Will the study help to alter nursing
practices or policies?

Prioritising Research: Criteria
2. Researchability of the problem
Not all problems are amenable to a
research through a scientific study
Example include problems that relate to
moral or ethical nature
Ex. Observing how often couples use
condoms during sexual intercourse

Prioritising Research: Criteria
3. Feasibility
Time and Timing
Availability of study participants
Cooperation of others (e.g. seeking the consent
of parents if children)
Interest to the researcher
Avoidance of duplication
Applicability of possible research findings
Ethical acceptability


Characteristics of a good
research topic
1. Interesting
2. Researchable
3. Significant
4. Manageable
5. Ethical
Chapter Three
Analysing & Stating Research
Problem
Learning objectives
Use the problem analysis diagram to analysis a
research problem
Describe the importance of a clear statement of a
problem
Enumerate the points that should be included in
the statement of a problem
Analyse and state their own research problem

Introduction



Adequately analysing the
problem will help you include
all possible contributory factors
from different sectors
Analysing the problem
Analysis focus on:
Factors that may have contributed to the
problem
The relationship between the problem and
the contributing factors
Analysing the problem
Contributing factors grouped into:
Service- related factors: e.g. distance to
clinic
Disease related factors e.g. seriousness of
patients condition
Socio- cultural factors e.g. occupation &
marital status
Analysing the problem
STEPS IN PROBLEM ANALYSIS
Identify and write down the core problem
Identify possible contributing factors
Determine relationship between the problem
and the contributing factors
Regroup the contributing factors into broad
categories where appropriate
Decide on the focus and scope of the research




Stating the Research Problem
Problem statement is an expression of
the dilemma or disturbing situation that
needs investigation.
Stating the Research Problem
It has six components:
1. Problem identification: what is wrong with the current
situation?
2. Background: what is the nature of the problem, the
context of the situation that readers need to understand?
3. Scope of the problem: how big a problem is it; how
many people are affected?
4. Consequences of the problem: what is the cost of not
fixing of not fixing the problem?
5. Knowledge gaps: what information about the problem is
lacking?
6. Proposed solution: what is the basis that the proposed
study would contribute to the solution of the problem?

CHAPTER FOUR
Study Purpose, Aim or Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students
should be able to
Explain the relationship between the
terms: purpose, aims and objective
Differentiate between general and specific
objectives
Formulate specific objectives


Study purpose, aims and objectives are
synonymous terms and are therefore
used interchangeably
Study purpose, aims &
Objective
Assumed to mean the same thing
It answers the question what does the
researcher wish to achieve?
It is the overall impact of the study
Statement of objectives
Research objectives are the steps you are going
to take to answer your research questions or
a specific list of tasks needed to accomplish the
goals of the project.
While aims are broad in nature, objectives
are focused and practical.
Statement of objectives
Define the focus of your study
Clearly identify variables to be measured
Indicate the various steps to be involved
Establish the limits of the study
Avoid collection of any data that is not strictly
necessary
General Objectives
These are normally the aims/goals of
the study,
Are broad statements of what is to be
achieved by the study.
That is, what is the purpose of
research?

Specific Objectives
These are measurable statements on the
specific questions to be answered.
They are more specific and are related to the
problem situation
Refer to example 4.1 in lecture notes
How to state the objectives
Research objectives should:
cover different aspects of the problem and its
contributing factors
be clearly expressed in measurable terms
be realistic considering local conditions
meet the purpose of the study
use action verbs that are specific enough to be
measured

Characteristics of Objectives
(SMART)

Specific

be precise about what you are going to do

Measurable

you will know when you have reached your goal


Achievable

dont attempt too much.
Realistic

do you have the necessary resources to achieve
the objective?

Time
Constraint

determine when each stage needs to be
completed.
Examples of strong verbs for
objectives
To determine
To compare
To verify
To describe
To establish
To produce
To revise



To find out
To collect
To construct
To classify
To develop
To devise
To measure
To select
To synthesise

Avoid the use of weak, vague non-
action verbs such as:
To appreciate,
To consider,
To enquire,
To learn,
To know,
To understand,
be aware of
to listen,
to perceive

Chapter Five
Research Questions, Hypothesis &
Variables
At the end of this lesson, the student
should be able to:
Explain the need for developing a research
question and hypothesis
Formulate research questions and hypothesis.
Differentiate between dependent & independent
variables
Explain the need for operationalizing variables
State operational definition of variables

Introduction
After deciding on your research topic,
the next thing to do is to state a
research question that will help focus
your research study.
This will be followed by the making a
scientific guess as to the possible
outcome of the research study.
What is Research Question?
This is a clear, focused, concise, complex
and arguable question around which you
centre your research.
The question provides a path through the
research and writing process.
Characteristics of research questions
Clear
Focused
Complex i.e., should not be answerable
with a simple yes or no or by easily-
found facts.
Refer to examples 5.1 & 5.2
Research questions, rather than
hypothesis, are normally used in
qualitative research and in descriptive-
survey studies.
Variables-what youre measuring
A variable is a characteristic that varies between
individuals and can be measured, such as weight,
age and gender.

Refers to Qualities, properties, or characteristics
of persons, things, or situations that change or
vary

(Burns & Grove, 2007, p.125).

Examples of variables
A person's age.
This variable can take on different values,
such as, 20 years old, 30 years old, and so
on.
Marital status
single, married, divorced & widowed

Other examples: height, weight, job
satisfaction
Types of variables
Five main types
1. Dependent variable
2. Independent variable
3. Demographic variable
4. Descriptive variable
5. Extraneous variables

Dependent vs. Independent variables
Nursing researchers may be interested in
answering the following questions
Does a nursing intervention cause
improvements in patient outcome?
Does smoking cause lung cancer?
The presumed cause is the independent
variable, and the presumed effect is the
dependent variable
Dependent vs. Independent variables

Independent variable Dependent variable


intervention, influence or
exposure
outcome

Activity-determine the variables
1. A researcher wants to know whether a
hospitalised childs anxiety level during painful
procedure would lessened if a parent were
present during the procedure.
2. You are interested in the effect of daily exercise
on glucose levels in adolescents with type I
diabetes
Activity-determine the variables
2. A researcher asked: What is the effect of heart
failure self-management education on a
patients knowledge level and readmission rate
to the hospital?
3. For term, stable infants, is there a relationship*
between immediate skin-to-skin contact after
birth and exclusive breastfeeding at 2 months of
age?

Demographic variables
These are attributes or characteristics of
the subjects in a study. Examples:
Age
Gender
Diagnosis
Socioeconomic information

Extraneous Variables
Also called nuisance variables.
Not usually of primary interest but are believed to be
related to the independent and/or dependent
variables.
Their effects need to be controlled in order to obtain
meaningful results.
Examples include:
Transportation
Literacy
In doing a research, you need to identify and control
them if possible.

Hypothesis
A hypothesis attempts to answer a
question which has emerged from a
research problem.
They are scientifically reasonable
predictions that go further than a
research question and predict an
outcome.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis states the relationship
between two or more variables that
suggest an answer to the research
question.
Simple VS. complex hypothesis
Simple hypothesis
expresses an expected relationship btn one
independent and one dependent variable.
Complex hypothesis
Expresses a relationship btn two (or more)
independent variables and/or two (or
more) dependent variables.

Directional vs. Non-directional Hypothesis
Directional hypothesis: specifies not only
the existence but the expected direction of the
relationship between variables.
Example
The risk of falling increases with the age of
the patient.
In the above example, there is an explicit
prediction that older patients are at
greater risk of falling than younger ones.

Directional vs. Non-directional Hypothesis
Non-directional hypothesis: does not
stipulate the direction of the relationship.
Example:
There is a relationship between the age of a
patient and the risk of falling.
This hypothesis do not stipulate whether the
researcher thinks that older patients or younger
ones are at greater risk.

Alternate VS. Null Hypothesis
Alternative hypotheses (H
I
)
This hypothesis normally suggests a relationship
and a potential outcome in a research study.
can be directional or non-directional
Example:
Children with high IQ will exhibit more anxiety
than children with low IQ-directional
There is a difference in the anxiety level of the
children of high IQ and those of low IQ- non-
directional

Alternate VS. Null Hypothesis
A null hypothesis (H
O
)
is a statement that there is no actual relationship
between variables.
predicts no difference between the groups of
events or observations under study.
Example:
There is no significant difference in the anxiety
level of children of High IQ and those of low IQ.
There is no relationship between age of
adolescents and occurrence of unwanted
pregnancy.

Refer to examples in the handout
Chapter 5
Literature Review
Learning objective
After reading this chapter, student should be
able to:
Describe the reasons for reviewing available
literature
Describe the literature resources that are available
for carrying out review
Systematically review a literature on a given topic

Introduction
A literature review
summarises, interprets, and critically
evaluates existing "literature"
establish current knowledge of a subject
establish what knowledge and ideas have
been established on a specific topic
Purpose of literature review
Refer to lecture notes

Types of literature
Primary literature e.g. articles published in
reputable journals.
Secondary literature e.g. textbooks and
review articles.
Grey literature e.g. government reports,
conference proceedings and theses.
Web sites : sites other than those associated
with mainstream academic literature.
Steps in the review of literature
Initial search
a cursory examination of available publication
Secondary search
in-depth & critical evaluation of publications
Involves:
Electronic searching
Manual searching
Steps in the review of literature
Electronic searching
Databases contain large quantities of information
Examples of databases:
Cochrane library
Web of science
Google scholar
CINAHL
PubMed/Medline
Steps in the review of literature
Manual Searching
not all journals are available on databases;
important information may be missed.
Ideal to combine manual and computerised
search. This include:
Hand searching journals
Searching reference list
Author searching
Keeping Record
A systematic method for recording important
information and the search strategy:
prevent duplicating effort by doing the same
search twice
missing out a significant and relevant sector of
literature
Information such as authors name, date of
publication, title of article and name of journal or
book can be entered on a separate card
Writing the review
Final task: organise and report the
material covered
Outline
an introduction,
a body,
a conclusion

Writing the review
Your review should:
well-organized and critical summary of current state
of knowledge
Studies with comparable findings often can be
summarised together.
in your own words.
point out both consistencies and contradictions in
the literature as well as offer possible explanations
for the inconsistencies.
CHAPTER SEVEN
Research Methods
Learning objective
After completing this chapter, the student
should be able to:
Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative
research methods
Describe and understand the various components
of the methods section in a research proposal
Explain the cyclical nature of the different steps in
designing the methodology

Introduction
Not all research methods can be used to answer
every research questions
E.g.
a nurse interested in the accuracy of
thermometers in assessing fever will use a
quantitative
a nurse interested in the experience of fever from
the patients perspective will use a qualitative
approach
Definitions
Research Methodology is the science of studying
how research is done scientifically.
Research methods are generalized and established
ways of approaching research questions (e.g.,
qualitative vs. quantitative methods).
Research Design involves determining how a chosen
method (qualitative or quantitative) will be applied to
answer your research question.
Includes methodology, sample selection, data collection
process, instruments

Quantitative Research Design
Based on the measurement of
quantity or amount.
Results can be:
a number or a set of numbers
presented in tables and graphs.

Types of quantitative research
Two main types
Interventional (experimental) research
Non-interventional (non-experimental)
research
Types of quantitative research
1. Interventional (experimental) research
The researcher manipulates objects
He then measures the outcome of his
manipulation.
Two main types:
experimental and quasi-experimental studies.
Types of quantitative research
Non-interventional (non-experimental)
research:
the researcher just describes or
analyses variables without intervening
in anyway.
The main types are
correlational studies and descriptive
studies.

Interventional Research: Experimental
The researcher provides a specific
treatment to one group and withholds it
from the other.
He then determines how both groups
scored on an outcome.
Interventional Research: Experimental
Characteristics of experimental design
Manipulation: involves doing something to study
participants.
Control: the experimenter introduces controls
over the experimental situation, including the use
of a control group
Randomization: the experimenter assigns
subjects to a control or experimental group on a
random basis.

Interventional Research
Quasi-experimental
Undertaken when randomization not possible.
The design introduces some form of treatment or
manipulation but does not utilize
randomization or control group.
Quasi-experimental therefore lack either
randomisation or a control group

Non-interventional research
Non-interventional research
Generally present-oriented.
describe what exist.
variables are not deliberately
manipulated,
the setting controlled
Non-interventional research
Examples
1. Explorative studies:
explores new phenomena to enhance the
researchers understanding.
normally of short duration and carried out on
small scale.

Non-interventional research
Examples
2. Descriptive studies
description of phenomena in real life situation.
It is designed to provide an accurate account of
characteristics of particular individuals,
situations or groups.
It answers the question: what is? e.g. what
factors influence mother-infant bonding?
Non-interventional research
Examples
4. Correlational studies
investigates relationship btnx or among
variables.
5. Surveys
provides a quantitative description of
trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population
by studying a sample of that population.
It can either be cross-sectional or
longitudinal.

Qualitative research design
Quali is a way of looking at the world from
the point of view of people.
It enquires about what people feel, think,
understand and believe.
It is more concern with describing and
understanding human experiences from the
point of view of the people who have had, or
are having, the experience.
Qualitative research
E.g. a patients who are experiencing chronic
pain.
Quantitative research would be concerned
with the level of pain patient experience
that these people were experiencing, and
Qualitative research would be concerned
with what it means to be living with
chronic pain.
Examples of qualitative
Grounded theory,
action research,
historical,
ethnographic,
philosophical and
phenomenological

Selecting a research method
Refer to section 7.6
CHAPTER EIGHT
Data Collection
Learning objective
After completing this chapter, the student
should be able to:
Define key terms used in data collection
Mention the data collection techniques and tools
Differentiate between data collection techniques
and tools
Mention the characteristics of a good interview
Design and administer a questionnaire for a simple
study

Definition and types of data
Data
pieces of information obtained in a
study
It can exist as:
Numeric values Quantitative
Narrative descriptions Qualitative

Types of data
Primary data
collected afresh & for the first time
original in character.
Secondary data
data collected by someone else & already
been passed through the statistical
process.

Data Collection Techniques
Data are collected using the ff means:
Interviewing
Administering questionnaire
Observing participants
using existing data
using focus group discussions
Historical data and records

Data collection tools
These are the recording forms. consists
of :
observation schedule
interview guide,
interview schedule,
questionnaire,
rating scale,
check list etc.,

Data collection technique Data collection tool
Using existing data Checklist, data collection
forms
Observing Eyes and other senses, pen
and paper, watch, scales etc
Interviewing Interview schedule,
questionnaire, tape reorder
Administering written
questionnaire
questionnaire
Interview
Definition
it is a data-collection technique that
involves oral questioning
it is a two way systematic conversation
between an investigator and an informant
Interview: characteristics
1. Interviewer and respondent are strangers; proper
introduction needed.
2. The relationship btnx participants and interviewer
must have a fixed beginning and termination points.
3. Interview is conversation with a specific purpose
4. Interview needs not to be face-to-face only
5. Although interview is usually a conversation
between two persons, it need not be limited to a
single respondent.
Advantages of interviews
improves the percentage of responses & quality of
information received than other method
supplemental information like economic level, living
conditions etc. can be gathered
The accuracy and dependability of the answers given
by the respondent can be checked by observation
and probing.
Interview is flexible and adaptable to individual
situations.
Disadvantages of interviews
1. Results are often adversely affected by interviewer's
mode of asking questions & interactions
2. Certain types of personal and financial information
may be refused in face-to-face interview
3. Interview poses the problem of recording
information obtained from the respondents
4. Lack of training for the person who conduct
interview.
5. Interview is costly both in terms of money and
time.

Types of interview
1. Structured or directive interview
same questions put to all the respondents and in
the same order.
Each question is asked in the same way in each
interview.
2. Unstructured or non-directive interview
Respondent encouraged to talk freely about a
given topic with a minimum of prompting or
guidance.

Interview process
1. Preparation e.g.Prepare interview schedule
2. Researcher properly introduces self
3. Establish rapport with respondent
4. Carrying the interview forward by asking
questions
5. Recording the interview
6. Closing the interview
Questionnaire
Definition
Consist of a number of questions printed or
typed in a definite order on a form or set
of forms.
Advantages of questionnaire
Questionnaires:
are relatively simple to administer
not to be a time-consuming
are inexpensive.
facilitate the collection of large amount of
data in a short period of time.
can be relatively anonymous,
Disadvantages
Questionnaire
prevents personal contact with
respondents.
does not allow respondents to qualify
ambiguous questions
Poorly worded or direct questions might
arouse antagonism or inhibitions on the
part of respondents

Types of questionnaires
Three basic types of questionnaire:
closed-ended;
open-ended;
combination of both
Types of questionnaires
Closed-ended questionnaires
used to generate statistics in quantitative research.
Questionnaires follow a set format
Open-ended questionnaires
Contain blank section for the respondent to write in
an answer.
E.g. closed-ended questionnaires might be used to find
out how many people use a service, open-ended
questionnaires might be used to find out what people
think about a service.

Types of questionnaires
Combination of both
Combination of open-ended and close-ended
questions
Many questionnaires begin with a series of
closed questions, with boxes to tick or scales to
rank, and then finish with a section of open-
questions for more detailed response.

Refer to example of questionnaire
Designing effective questionnaire
Questionnaire design go through:
Planning
Composing a draft questionnaire
Sequencing questionnaire
Formatting the questionnaire
Piloting and revising the questionnaire
Designing effective questionnaire
Planning
make a list of research objectives/variables
determine information required to achieve
objectives
Make a list of all the questions that could go into
the questionnaire.
The best way to do this is to turn the objectives to
questions.
Review literature to identify tested questionnaires.
Designing effective questionnaire
Composing a draft question; POINTS TO NOTE!.
Avoid leading questions: questions should not be
worded in such a way that it lead the respondent
into an answer. E.g. Wouldnt you say that,
Isnt it fair to say
Designing effective questionnaire
Composing a draft question; POINTS TO
NOTE!.
Be specific. Avoid words like regularly,
often, or locally as everyones idea of
what is regular, often or local will be
different.



Designing effective questionnaire
Composing a draft question; POINTS TO NOTE!
Keep your questions short & simple as possible.
Avoid multiple ideas or two questions in one will
confuse and be misunderstood
E.g. How many cups of coffee or tea do you drink
in a day? To make the question simple, separate
the it into two:
How many cups of coffee do you drink during a
typical day?
How many cups of tea do you drink during a
typical day?



Designing effective questionnaire
Composing a draft question; POINTS TO NOTE!
Make sure question and answer options match.
Example: Have you had pain in the last week?
[ ] Never [ ] Seldom [ ] Often [ ] Very often
Solution
Reword either question or answer to match.
The questions should be: How often have you had
pain in the last week?
[ ] Never [ ] Seldom [ ] Often [ ] Very Often




Designing effective questionnaire
Composing a draft question; POINTS TO NOTE!
Encourage the respondent to consider each possible
response to avoid the uncertainty of whether a missing
item may represent either an answer that does not
apply or an overlooked item.
Example: Which one of the following do you think
increases a persons chance of having a heart attack
the most? (Check one.)
[ ] Smoking [ ] Being overweight [ ] Stress
See solution on next page




Designing effective questionnaire
Composing a draft question; POINTS TO NOTE!
Solution:
Which of the following increases the chance of
having a heart attack?
Smoking: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
Being overweight: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
Stress: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know




Designing effective questionnaire
Composing a draft question; POINTS TO NOTE!
Avoid branching as much as possible to avoid
confusing respondents.
Example :( 1) Do you currently have a life insurance
policy? (Circle: Yes or No)
If no, go to question 3.
(2) How much is your annual life insurance
premium?



Designing effective questionnaire
Composing a draft question; POINTS TO NOTE!
Solution: If possible, write as one question.
How much did you spend last year for life
insurance? (Write 0 if none).



Designing effective questionnaire
Desensitise questions by using response
bands.
Questions which ask women about their age
are best presented as a range of response
bands.
Example
instead of asking the respondent to write down
her age, you can give a range of ages such as
20-29, 30-39 etc.

Designing effective questionnaire
Do not use jargon or specialist language
Avoid questions which require participants to
perform calculations
Avoid offensive questions or insensitive questions
which could cause embarrassment
Avoid asking difficult questions, e.g. where the
respondent may struggle to answer (people hate
to look stupid by not knowing the answer).
Sequencing of questionnaire
Three major sections in a
questionnaire:
The basic information sought
The socio-demographic information useful
in obtaining the profile of the respondent
The identification sections to be used by
the interviewer
Sequencing of questionnaire
Points to consider
Put the most important items in first half of
questionnaire.
Dont start with awkward or embarrassing
questions respondents may just give up.
Start with easy and non-threatening
questions.
Go from the general to the particular.

Sequencing of questionnaire
Points to consider
Go from factual to abstract questions.
Go from closed to open questions.
Leave demographic and personal questions
until last
Arrange questions in logical order. Sudden
changes in subject confuse the respondent
and cause indecision.

Formatting the questionnaire
Appearance of your questionnaire matters!
The questionnaire should be clear and easy to
read.
It should be easy for the interviewer to navigate
around.
Provide adequate space for respondents to answer
open-ended questions.
Formatting the questionnaire
Use clear headings and numbering if
appropriate.
Questionnaire should be legible
It is important not to split the question, or
question and response categories between two
pages.
Questions must be numbered (1,2,etc) and sub-
sections clearly labelled (e.g. 1a, 1b, etc).
Piloting & revising the questionnaire
Pre-testing
administering questionnaire to a limited number of
potential respondents
Helps identify potential problems
Respondents should be informed that they are
being interviewed for a pilot study
How to administer the questionnaire
ways of administering questionnaires:
self-administered (sent by post, email,
or electronically online).
Interview administered ( administered
by telephone, skype or face to face

Advantages of self-administered
questionnaires
1. Cheap and easy to administer
2. Preserve confidentiality
3. Can be completed at respondents
convenience
4. Can be administered in a standard manner

Advantages of interview administered
questionnaires
Allow participation by illiterate people.
Allow clarification of ambiguity

Participant observation
the researcher is involved in the
situation being measured;
E.g., a nurse who would be washing
his or her hands, along with the other
staff.
The nurse researcher might do this
covertly (secretly)- ethical concerns
Non-participant observation
The researcher is not involved directly in the
practice being measured.
Both participant and non-participant observation
can raise concerns about something called the
Hawthorne effect (or sometimes performance
bias).
The Hawthorne effect is where the behaviour of
those being watched changes because they know
they are being watched.
Using existing data
It is also possible to take existing data and
subject those data to analysis.
E.g. use of existing hospital records.
It would be a waste of time collecting new data
when existing data are available.
An important and relatively new way of using
existing data is in the meta-analysis associated
with systematic reviews.
CHAPTER NINE
SAMPLING A POPULATION
Learning objective
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to:
Define common concepts used in
sampling
Explain the term sampling
Enumerate the steps involved in the
development of a sample design
Describe the two main types of sampling
designs

Definitions
Research setting
The environment in which research is carried out.
E.g. laboratory or a 'real' setting such as hospital
A research population/Target population
a large collection of individuals or objects that is the main
focus of a scientific query.
Study Population
This is the population from which the sample actually
was drawn.
Subset of target population

Sampling
Process of selecting a portion of the population
to represent the entire population.
a subset of the entire population.
must be representative
Reasons for Sampling
Less costs
Less field time
More accuracy
When its impossible to study the
whole population

Steps involved in sample design
1. Define target population
2. Decide on the Sampling Unit e.g.
geographical area such as a village
3. Decide on the sampling frame (list of units
from which the sample is to be selected)
4. Determine the sample size.
5. Decide on sampling Procedure
Types of sampling design
Two main types:
Probability sampling
Non-probability sampling
Probability (random) sampling

Each member has an equal chance of
being selected.
It ensures representativeness
Types
1. Simple random,
2. Stratified random,
3. Cluster sampling
4. Systematic sampling.

Simple random sampling
Individuals have an equal and
independent chance of being selected for
the sample.
Used when the population is uniform or
has similar characteristics in all cases.
Refer to examples in the handbook

Stratified sampling
Applied to a population that is not homogeneous
The population is divided into several sub-
populations that are individually more
homogeneous
these sub populations are called strata
A simple random sample is then taken from each
group.
Example, dividing the population into males and
females and then doing a simple random sampling
of each strata
Cluster/multistage sampling
Used for large-scale surveys, when the population
represents broad geographic areas or large numbers of
people.
The process of sampling moves through stages until the
final sample has been selected.
E.g. to sample all nursing students in the Ghana, you
would proceed as follows:
Prepare a list of regions and draw a random sample.
Prepare a list of nursing schools in those selected
regions and take a random sample of the schools.
Then prepare a list of students from these schools
and make a random selection of a sample of
students.

Systematic sampling
Involves the selection of every kth case from a list or
group, such as every 10th person on a patient list.
Procedure;
1. Establish the desired sample size (n)
2. Determine the size of the population (N).
3. Calculate the sampling interval (K) = N/n
4. E.g. a sample of 200 from a population of 40,000,then
our sampling interval would be as follows
K=40,000/200 = 200
5. Every 200th element on the list would be sampled.
6. The first element should be selected randomly
7. If number 73 is selected from a table. The people
corresponding to numbers 73, 273, 473, 673, and so
forth would be sampled.

Non-probability (non-random)
Each member does not have an equal chance of
being selected as a participant in the study.
Units of the sample are chosen on the basis of
personal judgment or convenience.
Other name: deliberate sampling, purposive
sampling and judgment sampling.
Advantages
ease of recruitment,
easier monitoring and follow-up,
higher response rates
Non-probability sampling
Convenience sampling
Researcher includes whoever happens to
be available or participants that are easiest
to obtain.
It is also called accidental or
haphazard sampling.
Example: distributing questionnaires to
nursing students in a class
Disadvantage: available subjects might be
atypical of the population of interest

Snowball sampling
also called network sampling or chain sampling
Its a variant of convenience sampling.
Researcher ask participants to suggest or refer
someone else who might be eligible
Snowball samples are useful when certain people
are hard to contact, for example a person trying to
contact drug users might use a snowball sample

Purposive/Judgmental sampling
Based on the belief that researchers
knowledge about the population can be
used to hand-pick sample members.
subjects sampled may be:
typical of the population or
particularly knowledgeable about the
issues under study
Sampling
methods
Probability
sampling
Simple
random
Systematic

cluster stratified
Non-
probability
convenience
Snow
-balling
Purposive quota
Quota Sampling
The researcher identifies population
strata and determines how many
participants are needed from each
stratum.
Ensures the inclusion of representatives
from certain elements in the population.
For example ensuring that all tribes are
represented in a study.
DATA PROCESSING
AND ANALYSIS
Isaac Amankwaa
157
Key topics
Data processing
Tabulation of data
Analysing quantitative data
the student should be able to:
Mention the processes involve in processing
research data
Mention the importance of tabulating data
Explain how quantitative data is analysed

Editing Data
It is a process of examining the collected
raw data to detect errors and omissions
and to correct these when possible.
It involves a careful scrutiny of the
completed questionnaires.

Editing Data
Purpose of editing
For consistency between and among
responses.
For completeness in response
To better utilize questions answered out of
order.
To facilitate the coding process.

Data Processing
Types of Editing
Field Editing
Done on the same day as the interview to
catch technical omissions, check legibility
of handwriting, and clarify responses
Office Editing
Performed by a central office staff; often done
more rigorously than field editing
Coding of data
It involves assigning of numbers to each
response of the question.
Purpose
to translate raw data into numerical data, which
may be counted and tabulated.
E.g. the variable sex can be represented as:
1 = Male
2 = Female.
Missing values can be entered as a code 9
or 99 or 999 instead of entering it as blank.


Coding of data
Pre-coding
This is when codes are entered on the
questionnaires (or checklists) themselves.
For each questionnaire a box is inserted in
the right margin of the page.
These boxes should not be used by the
interviewer.
They are only filled in afterwards during data
processing.
Summarizing (classification) of data
Data can be summarized using:
Data master sheets;
manual compilation or
compilation by computer

Summarizing (classification) of data
Data Master Sheets
All the answers from individual
respondents are entered by hand
onto the data master sheet.


Summarizing (classification) of data
Data Master Sheets
In a study carried out by students of a nursing
school about the smoking habits of the
inhabitants of their town.
The questionnaire had only 17 questions, of
which 9 were asked of everyone, 4 exclusively
to smokers and 4 exclusively to non-smokers.
The data was processed by hand as seen in
the next slide
No Q1
Sex
Q2
Age
Q6
No.
of
Cig
Q7
Age
of
onset
Q 9
Tried to
Q 14
Cough > 2
weeks
Q
14
Coug
h
/chest
pain
reduce stop
Yrs
Cat
No
Cat
Yrs
Cat
yes No Yes No Yes No Yes N
o
1 M 18 10 12 1x
2 M 35 30 20 NR 1x
3 M 54 15 14 10x 3x
Etc.
total 31 AV
35
Av
20
Av 20 26 4 +
1
NR
19 12 5 26 11 2
0
Summarizing (classification) of
data
Compilation by hand (without
using master sheets)
Used for a small sample (e.g.< 30)
This can be done by
manual sorting
tally counting

Summarizing (classification) of
data
Compilation by hand (contd)
Manual Sorting (Procedure)
Take one question at a time, for example, use of
health facility,
Sort the questionnaires into different piles
representing the various responses to the question,
(e.g., hospital/ health centre/ traditional practitioners)
then count the number in each pile

Summarizing (classification) of
data
Compilation by hand (contd)
Tally counting (Procedure)
One member of the compiling team reads out the
information while the other records it in the form
of a tally (e.g., /// representing 3 subjects, ////
representing 4 subjects who present a particular
answer).
After tally counting, add the tallies and record the
number of subjects in each group.
Summarizing (classification) of
data
Compilation by hand (contd)
After doing either manual or tally
counting, check the total number of
subjects/responses in each
question to make sure that there
has been no omission or double
count.
Computer Compilation
The computer should not be used
For small samples
if data is mainly generated by open questions
(qualitative data)
The larger the sample, the more beneficial in
general the use of a computer will be.

Computer Compilation
Steps in Computer
Choosing an appropriate computer program
(e.g. STATA, SPSS, ect)
Data entry
Verification or validation of the data
Programming (if necessary)
Computer outputs/prints

Computer Compilation-steps
1. Choosing an appropriate computer
program
You need to identify an appropriate statistical
package
Examples include Epi Info, SPSS, STATA, etc.
2. Data entry
First develop a data entry format
This is followed by coding of information on the
data collection instrument
e.g., Male: M or 1, Female: F or 2
Computer Compilation-steps
3. Verification
This is done to correct mistakes that occurred
during data entry
E.g. of mistakes that can seen on a print out
included
exceptionally long or short lines,
blanks that should not be there,
alphabetic codes where numbers are expected.
Computer Compilation-steps
4. Programming
A certain amount of basic knowledge of
computer programming is needed to give the
appropriate commands.
Computer Compilation-steps
5. Computer outputs
This involves printing the analysis
generated by the computer
This is followed by a careful scrutiny
of the individual tables, graphs, and
statistical tests to ensure they make
sense
Classification of data
This involves putting the collected data
into groups that have common features
This helps convey a meaning to the
researcher.
Classification is done in two ways:
1. Classification according to attributes.
2. Classification according to the class intervals

Classification according the
attributes
Data is classified on the basis of
common characteristics that can
be:
Descriptive e.g. sex, marital status
Numeral e.g. weight and height

Classification on the basis of
the interval
The numerical feature such as
income, age and weight can be
measured quantitatively classified
by way of intervals.

Tabulation of Data
Tabulation is the process of
summarizing raw data and displaying
it in the form of statistical table for
further analysis
This can be done manually (small
study) or by the use of computers
(large numbers)

Advantages of Tabulation
It simplifies complex data.
It facilitates comparison and summarisation.
It facilitates computation.
It presents facts in minimum possible space.
Facilitates detection of errors and omissions
Tabulated data are good for references and
they make it easier to present the information
in the form of graphs and diagrams.

Basic Principles of Tabulation
1. Tables should be clear, concise & adequately titled.
2. Every table should be distinctly numbered for easy
reference.
3. Column headings & row headings of the table should
be clear & brief.
4. Units of measurement should be specified at
appropriate places.
5. Explanatory footnotes concerning the table should be
placed at appropriate places.
6. Source of information of data should be clearly
indicated.
7. Abbreviations should be avoided.

Analyzing Quantitative Data
Quantitative studies normally produce
numbers
In quantitative study, data that describe both
the characteristics of the participants and
the findings of the study.
This can be presented in two main ways:
Descriptive analysis
Inferential analysis
Descriptive Analysis
Descriptive analysis describes the main
characteristics of a collection of data.
Four main areas of descriptive statistics
are:
Frequencies
Averages
Charts
Variability

Descriptive Analysis
Frequency counts
An enumeration of how often a certain
measurement or a certain answer to a specific
question occurs.
Example, asking 100 nurses working in SDA
hospital whether they had experienced any back
pain in the past six months. Responses to be
given include:
Severe,
Minor and
None.
The number of responses to each of the
possible answers can be presented as
follows:

Possible
answer
Frequency of answer
severe 7 respondents answered YES
minor 45 respondents answered YES
none 48 respondents answered YES
Diagnosis Frequency %
Arrested hydrocephally 1 4.2
Brain trauma 3 12.5
Brain damage 2 8.3
Brain damage (RTA) 1 4.2
Cerebral palsy 1 4.2
Chicken pox encephalitis 1 4.2
Congenital abnormality 1 4.2
Downs syndrome 6 25.0
Dysgenic features 1 4.2
Microcephaly 2 8.3
Multiple handicap birth 1 4.2
Not recorded 1 4.2
Williams syndrome 3 12.5
total 24 100.0
FREQUENCIES OF TYPES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
Descriptive Analysis
Percentages
Allow us to quickly summarize and put
some meaning behind our findings.
In percentage terms, 25 per cent of our
sample has been diagnosed with Downs
syndrome.
Averages/ Measures of Central
Tendencies
It give the reader a good idea of some
of the central, or average, values of a
set of data.
The three types of averages are
Mean
mode
median
E.g. a nurse consultant interested in how
long patients are seen at the OPD
Possible answer Frequency of
answer
10 minutes 3 patients
20 minutes 1 patient
30 minutes
40 minutes
50 minutes
60 minutes 1 patient
Charts: visual presentation of
data
Variables can be represented as charts.
Examples of charts are the bar chart, the
histogram and the pie chart.
These charts help present data graphically.
Bar charts and pie charts tend to be used for
categorical-type data, and histograms tend
to be used for continuous-type data.

Bar chart








Mainly used for categorical-type data
Frequencies
of variables
appear here
Variables
appear here
Pie Chart
This is a circular chart divided into segments,
illustrating the different frequencies,
proportional to the size of the frequency to all
the other frequencies.

Discussing your Research
Finding
Key topics
Interpreting the findings
Contextualising the findings
Evaluating the study and making
recommendations
After reading this topic, the student must be able
to:
offer a good interpretation of research results
discuss research findings in relation to existing
literature
make recommendations based on study findings

Introduction
This is the most difficult part of the
research process. It involves:
interpreting your results and what they
mean
Looking for opportunities to point out the
importance of your findings
Pointing out the issues that arose out of
your study
Introduction
Discussion therefore involves
interpreting the findings,
contextualising the findings and the
study in relation to the literature,
evaluating the study and making
recommendations.
Interpretation of Results
Provide a brief summary of the findings
do not repeat the statistics nor
repeat verbatim quotes in the results section
and
do not come up with new findings not already
covered in the results.
Explain why certain trends were obtained.
Contextualising the findings and the
study in relation to the literature
Clearly define whether the data confirm your
hypotheses (quantitative study) or whether a new
theory has been generated (qualitative studies).
If a hypothesis was not supported by the data,
are there any alternative ideas for further re-
search and further hypotheses?
Could any anomalous findings in a quantitative
study lead to an exploratory qualitative study to
try to explain such anomalies?
Contextualising the findings and the
study in relation to the literature
It is essential that you provide
suggestions for future studies in the
area
Provide proposals for more effective
designs and alternative methods of
analysis.
Mention the limitations.

Evaluating the study and making
recommendations
Summarise the general strengths and
limitations of the study so you can make
clearer to the reader the main points you are
trying to convey.
Provide recommendations that might apply to:
developments in policy,
changes to nursing practices
future recommendations for researchers to further
study in this area.
Finally there should be one or two sentences
that summarise your overall findings and main
conclusion.

Reporting/Disseminating Research
Finding
Findings of research must be communicated
especially if they have the potential to
impact nursing practice and patient care.
Common forums for communication of study
findings include
publication in various nursing journals,
oral and
poster presentations at professional
meetings/conferences, and/or in the workplace.
Research Reports
A research report should have the ff sections:
An abstract or summary
An introduction
Methodology or method
Results/findings
Discussion