Anatomical subdivisions of NS

Made up of neurons
and neuroglia cells
General Functions of NS
Sensory Input
Gathers information from stimuli
Integraton
Processes and interprets input
Motor Output
Creates a response

Functional Overview of NS
CNS
Integration,
processing and
coordination of
sensory data and
motor commands
Higher functions

PNS
1. Sensory or afferent division
with sensory neurons.
Brings sensory info to CNS.
Begins as receptors, ends in
brain
2. Motor or efferent division
with motor neurons.
Brings motor commands to
peripheral tissue.
Ends at effector cells.

Functional Overview of NS
Peripheral Nervous System
Cellular Organization of Neural Tissue
Two cell types:
1. Neurons
2. Neuroglia
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglial cells
Ependymal cells
Schwann cells
Satellite cells


Astrocytes: largest & most numerous

Function: BBB
star-shaped, most abundant and versatile
structural framework & repairs
regulation of ions, nutrients, gases

Oligodendrocyte
Smaller than astrocyte
Produce myelin in CNS (white matter vs. gray matter!)
Myelin = ?
Microglia cells
Smallest; long, thorny processes
Phagocytosis of dead
neurons
# during infection
or injury
Ependymal
cells
Lining of ventricles & central canal
Range from squamous to columnar
Some regions ciliated
Some specialized to produce CSF
Schwann Cells
and Peripheral Axons Responsible for myelination, but
surround all peripheral axons!
Involved in repair mechanism after
injury
Wallerian Degeneration
Satellite Cells
Surround neuron cell bodies
within ganglion

Function is unknown

General Neuron Structure
Cell body or Soma with Perikaryon
Dendrites
Axon with axon hillock
Synaptic terminals
dendrites
soma
axon
General Neuron Structure
Collect
signals
Dendrites
Dendrites
1. collect signals
2. multiple processes -- increases
surface area
3. usually short, tapering, highly
branched
4. send incoming message to cell
body (graded potentials)
Cellular
Metabolism
Cell Body
Cell Body of Neuron
1. a.k.a. Soma or Perikaryon
2. Nuclei in CNS; Ganglia in PNS clusters of cell bodies
3. Cellular Metabolism
4. Size from 5m up to 135m
5. Nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm
6. Typical cellular organelles
A. Lack centrioles (no mitosis)
B. Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substances) are prominent
clusters of rough ER
C. Cytoskeletal elements
1. neurofibrils give cells shape and support
2. microtubules move materials to and through axon

Sends signal
Axon
Axon
1. single process
2. sends signal away toward target cell
3. long, thin, cylindrical = nerve fibers
4. cytoplasm called axoplasm
5. membrane called axolemma
6. axon branches = axon collaterals (very rare)
7. end at axon terminals
some swell into synaptic end bulbs
release neurotransmitters

Axon
8. axon joins cell body at axon hillock
9. first part called initial segment
10. trigger zone
where impulses arise at junction of hillock and
initial segment
11. newly synthesized substances moved via
motor proteins and microtubules
toward end bulbs process called anterograde
transport
toward cell body process called retrograde
transport
Axon
12. myelin sheath protects and eletrically
insulates fibers
1. increases speed of transmission
13. unmyelinated fibers conduct impulses slowly
14. Schwann cells wrap around axon like a jelly
roll
15. neurilemma the nucleus and cytoplasm just
external to myelin sheath
16. Nodes of Ranvier are gaps where Schwann
cells dont touch



Dendrites
Cell Body
Axon
Structural Neuron Classification

Anaxonic
In CNS
Unipolar
Also called
pseudounipolar
Sensory neurons

Axon hillock
Axonic
Unipolar
Structural Neuron Classification
Bipolar
Unmyelinated
Rare, but important in
special senses
Multipolar
Most common
Have 3 or more
processes
All motor neurons


Bipolar
Multipolar
Functional Neuron Classification
1) sensory or
afferent
monitoring of all
stimuli
2) motor or
efferent
carry instructions to
effector organs
3) Inter- or
association neurons

Neuronal Communication
Excitable cells generate action potentials
electrical signals traveling cell membranes as a
result of ionic movement into and out of cells
Graded potentials
used only for short-distance communication
Nerve action potential
both short and long-distance communication
Graded Potential
Vary in amplitude according to strength
of stimulus
Travel short distances
Occur at
sensory receptors
dendritic connections
Can generate or trigger nerve action
potentials
Nerve Action Potential
Amplitude fixed (all-or-none event)
Travel both short and long distances
Occur along axons
Triggered by
graded potentials at sensory receptors and
dendritic connections
Graded Potential
Ion Channels
Ion channels open and close in response to
stimuli
when open, ions move down electrochemical
gradient
chemical and electrical difference across
membrane
movement constitutes flow of electrical current
that flips the charge
Four main types of ion channels
Types of Ion Channels
1. Leakage channel
randomly alternate between open & closed
2. Voltage-gated channel
respond to change in voltage
3. Ligand-gated channel
responds to chemicals stimulus
e.g. neurotransmitters, hormones, etc..
4. Mechanically gated channel
responds to mechanical stimulation
e.g. vibration, pressure, stretching
Voltage and Ligand Gated Channels
Primary Location of Gates
Ligand-gated and
mechanical-gated
channels
Voltage-gated sodium and
Potassium Ion channels
Voltage-gated
CALCIUM ion
channels
Resting Membrane Potential
Recall that there is a separation of charges
across the membrane of excitable cells.
Extracellular fluid contains more sodium ions
than are found inside a cell
Cytosol contains more anions and negatively
charged proteins
Thus sodium ions cling to the periplasmic cell
surface
Resting Membrane Potential
Cell somewhat permeable to potassium
Much less permeable to sodium
Sodium quick to rush in when gates open
following both electrical and concentration gradients
Potassium not quick to rush out
only has concentration gradient to drive flow
Resting Membrane Potential
small build-up of anions in cytosol
equal build-up of cations in extracellular fluid
Change in Membrane Potential
Ligand-gated or mechanical-gated Na
+

channels open
Fast Na
+
influx
following electrical & concentration gradients
Inside of cell becomes less negative
Graded Potentials
Most occur at dendrites or cell body





When ligand-gated or mechanical-gated
channels open or close
Slight deviation from resting membrane
potential
Graded Potentials
Hyperpolarization
Increases charge
difference between inside
& outside of cell
inside made even more
negative
Depolarization
Reduces charge difference
between inside & outside
of cell
inside made less negative
Graded Potentials
Graded because vary in amplitude (size)
depending on strength of stimulus
larger or smaller signal depending on how
many ion channels have opened or closed
alters the flow of ions
producing localized current that can trigger
action potential when signal strong enough
Types of Graded Potentials
Postsynaptic potential
ligand-gated channel signal
neurotransmitters
hormones
Generator Potential
mechanical-gated channel signals
sensory receptors
Action Potential Overview
Signals or impulses of communication
Travel along axons
Are all-or-none events
Unlike graded potentials
Threshold must be reached
Two phases
1. Depolarization
2. Repolarization
Refractory Periods
1. Absolute refractory period
2. Relative refractory period
Events in Neural Signaling
Graded Potentials
Action
Potentials
Synapses
Resting Membrane Potential
Review
Resting membrane potential in excitable cell is -
70mV
Membrane positive outside & negative inside
Anions inside cell that do pass
Na
+
concentration high outside & low inside
K
+
concentration low outside & high inside
Membrane Potential Changes
Graded potentials occur when
Ligand-gated or mechanical-gated Na
+
channels
open
Fast Na
+
influx
following both electrical & concentration gradients
Inside of cell becomes less negative
If change is +15mV action potential occurs
Threshold
The voltage at which the voltage gated Na
+

channels open
The number to remember is -55mv
If some Na
+
is allowed in, but not enough to
change the polarity to threshold, the axon will
not create an action potential
Action Potential
Depolarization
1. When graded potential signal is strong enough
(+15mV causing change to -55mV)
2. Trigger zone at axon hillock depolarizes
opening voltage gated Na
+
channels
3. Fast influx of Na
+
at axon hillock
4. Triggering chain-reaction-like depolarization of
entire axon as voltage-gated Na
+
open
5. Depolarization peaks at +30mV


-70mV +15mV = -55mV
Ion Gate Activity
1. All voltage-gates closed
2. Threshold reached (-55mV)
3. Fast responding voltage-gated Na
+
channels open at
activation gate
4. Slow responding voltage-gated K
+
channels open
5. Fast Na
+
influx
6. Membrane potential reaches +30mV
7. K
+
outflow begins
8. Voltage-gated fast Na
+
channels closed at inactivation
gate
9. Fast Na
+
influx stops
10. K
+
outflow continues
(12.14)
Repolarization
At +30mV
Na
+
influx stopped
K
+
outflow continues until membrane potential
is less than -55mV
After hyperpolarization phase can occur
because K
+
gates are slow
Membrane potential even less than resting
membrane potential of -70mV
All gates start to return to resting state when
membrane potential is less than -55mV

Refractory Periods
Absolute refractory period
Second AP not possible
Na
+
channels open until Na
+
channels inactivated
During stimulus response and depolarization
Relative refractory period
Second AP possible with larger-than-normal
stimulus
Na
+
channels returned to resting state
K
+
channels still open
During repolarization and hyperpolarization
Events in Neural Signaling
Graded Potentials
Action Potential
Impulse Propagation
Synapses
Impulse Propagation
AP continues as depolarization at one gate
region triggers depolarization down axon
If axon is uninsulated by myelin sheath
impulse continues smoothly down axon
termed continuous conduction
If axon is insulated by myelin sheath
impulse jumps from node to node down axon
termed saltatory conduction
Faster than continuous conduction

Impulse Propagation
Comparing Electrical Signals
Graded Potentials
cell body & dendrites
ligand & mechanical
gates
shorter propagation
variable amplitude
longer lasting than AP
hyperpolarizing to
depolarizing
no refractory period
Action Potentials
axon hillock & axon
voltage gated Na
+
and
K
+
longer propagation
all-or-none amplitude
shorter lasting than GP
depolarization to
repolarization
has refractory period
Synapse
Site of communication between two nerve
cells or nerve cell and effector cell
neuro-effector junctions
(example?)

Electrical vs.
chemical synapses
Synapse
Functional junction
between two neurons or
between neuron and its effector
Focus this chapter on neuron-to-neuron
Site of action for many therapeutic and
addictive chemicals
Synapse
Neuronal Synapse
Neural Synapse relationships
Axoanonic synapse = axon to axon
Axodendritic synapse = axon to dendrite
Axosomatic synapse = axon to cell body
Presynaptic neuron sends signal
Postsynaptic neuron receives signal

Neuronal Synapse
Two types
Electrical Synapses
Chemical Synapses
Chemical Synapse vs. Electrical Synapse
Space between two cells
Signal transduction via NT
Most common
Direct physical contact between
cells = gap junctions
Direct signal transduction
Rare, but occurs in CNS and heart
Electrical Synapses
Direct cell-to-cell communication
Cell membranes connected by gap junctions
Act like tunnels to connect cytosol of cells
Found in smooth and cardiac muscle
Rare in CNS
Fast communication
Synchronized synapses coordinate effector
tissue response
Chem.
Synapse
Structure
1. Axon terminal of presynaptic cell
2. Synaptic cleft
3. Dendrite or cell body of postsynaptic cell
Chemical Synapses
Indirect communication between cells
Cell membranes separated by synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter released into cleft
Post synaptic cell responds with type of
ligand-gated graded potential called
postsynaptic potential
Exhibit synaptic delay of ~ 0.5milliseconds
Chemical Synapse
1. AP arrives at synaptic end bulb of
presynaptic neuron
2. Synaptic end bulb voltage gated Ca
2+

channels open resulting in fast Ca
2+
influx
3. Triggers fusion of synaptic vesicles plasma
membrane and exocytosis of
neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft
4. Neurotransmitter fuses with receptors on
postsynaptic neuron
Chemical Synapse
5. Postsynaptic neuron ligand-gated channels
open
6. Graded potential results as ions in synaptic
cleft flow into postsynaptic cell
Depolarization occurs if channels are ligand-
gated Na
+
channels
Hyperpolarization occurs if channels are ligand-
gated Cl
-
channels
7. If depolarization reaches threshold, action
potential triggered
Signal Transmission
Postsynaptic Potentials
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP)
Usually open ligand-gated Na
+
, K
+
, and Ca
2+

channels
Na
+
influx faster Ca
2+
influx or K
+
outflow and
depolarization results
Low intensity graded potential
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSP)
Usually open ligand-gated K
+
or Cl
-
channels
hyperpolarizing postsynaptic neuron
Preventing or inhibiting depolarization


Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials
Summation
Integration of input from thousands of synapses
in CNS
Spatial Summation
Neurotransmitter released simultaneously by
several presynaptic axon terminals
Temporal Summation
Neurotransmitter released by single presynaptic
axon terminal two or more times in rapid
succession

Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials
Net Summation Effects
Occurs when both inhibitory and excitatory effects
are received by one postsynaptic neuron
Possible responses include
1. EPSP excitatory effect greater than inhibitory
effects but no threshold reached
2. Nerve impulse excitatory effect greater than
inhibitory effect and threshold reached
3. IPSP inhibitory effect greater than excitatory
effect and membrane hyperpolarizes


Neurotransmitter Removal
Prevents prolonged or excessive influence of
neurotransmitter on postsynaptic neuron or
effector cell
Three mechanisms for removal
1. Diffusion of neurotransmitter away from synaptic
cleft
2. Enzymatic degradation
3. Uptake by cells
Back into presynaptic neuron (reuptake)
Into nearby neuroglia (uptake)