Inventions &

Discoveries

Less is More

Form Follows
Function

Minimalism

Truthfulness of
Form, Material
& Expression


1

Modern Architecture
-Origins & Manifestations




Modern Architecture-
Origins

The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the
19th century where major changes in agriculture,
manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a
profound effect on the socio economic and cultural conditions
of the times.

A Watt steam engine, the steam
engine fuelled primarily by coal that
propelled the Industrial Revolution in
Great Britain and the world.

2


It began in the United Kingdom, and then subsequently spread
throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world.
In the two centuries following 1800, the world's average per
capita income increased over 10-fold, while the world's
population increased over 6-fold.




"For the first time in history, the living standards of the masses
of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth. ...
Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour has happened
before.

It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the
development of iron-making techniques and the increased use
of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the
introduction of canals, improved roads and railways.

Innovations during the Industrial
Revolution

The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small
number of innovations, made in the second half of the 18th century:
Three 'leading sectors', in which there were key innovations, which
allowed the economic take off by which the Industrial Revolution is
usually defined



The only surviving
example of a Spinning
mule built by the inventor
Samuel Crompton
Model of the spinning
jenny in a museum in
Wuppertal, Germany. The
spinning jenny was one of
the innovations that
started the revolution
3

Textiles Cotton spinning using Richard Arkwright's water frame, James
Hargreaves's Spinning Jenny, and Samuel Crompton's Spinning Mule (a
combination of the Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame). The end of the patent
was rapidly followed by the erection of many cotton mills.
Steam power The improved steam engine invented by James Watt and
patented in 1775 was initially mainly used to power pumps for pumping water
out of mines, but from the 1780s was applied to power other types of
machines. This enabled rapid development of efficient semi-automated
factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpower
was not available.

Iron making In the Iron industry, coke was finally applied to all stages of iron
smelting, replacing charcoal. This had been achieved much earlier for lead and copper
as well as for producing pig iron in a blast furnace, but the second stage in the
production of bar iron depended on the use of potting and stamping (for which a
patent expired in 1786) or puddling (patented by Henry Cort in 1783 and 1784).




Innovations during the Industrial
Revolution
Transfer of knowledge

Knowledge of innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were
trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be
poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour,
gathering information where he could.



A Philosopher Lecturing on the
Orrery (ca. 1766)
Informal philosophical societies
spread scientific advances
Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801,
Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg the
Younger Blast furnaces light
the iron making town of
Coalbrookdale

Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of
informal philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society of Birmingham, in
which members met to discuss 'natural philosophy' (i.e. science) and often
its application to manufacturing.

There were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias such as
Harris's Lexicon Technique (1704) and Abraham Rees's Cyclopadia (1802
1819) contain much of value.

Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to
appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included
notice of the latest patents.


Rise of Metal-frame Architecture

The fundamental technical prerequisite to large-scale modern architecture
was the development of metal framing.

The term industrial age denotes the period of history in which machine-
manufacturing (as opposed to manufacturing by hand) plays a major role. This
age began ca. 1750 (with the onset of the Industrial Revolution), and
continues to this day.




Since iron was becoming
cheaper and more plentiful, it
also became a major
structural material following
the building of the innovative
The Iron Bridge in 1778 by
Abraham Darby III.

The 1698 Savery Engine the
world's first commercially useful
steam engine: built by Thomas
Savery. Also called Miners friend

5

The industrial age can be divided into two parts: the iron and steam phase
(ca. 1750-1900) and the steel and electricity phase (ca. 1900-present).
The iron and steam phase is also the age of iron-frame architecture. During
this period, cast iron framing was introduced to masonry buildings.



Masonry walls were gradually relieved of their structural role, eventually
becoming a cosmetic skin over an iron skeleton of columns and arches.

Iron bridges and iron-and-glass buildings (e.g. greenhouses, train stations,
markets) were also constructed.








Transport in Britain during Industrial
Revolution

The Industrial Revolution improved Britain's transport infrastructure
with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a
railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be
moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved
transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.
Coastal sail
Sailing vessels had long been used for moving goods round the
British coast. The transport of goods coastwise by sea within Britain
was common during the Industrial Revolution, as for centuries before.
This became less important with the growth of the railways at the
end of the period.
Navigable rivers All the major rivers of the United Kingdom were navigable
during the Industrial Revolution. Some were anciently navigable, notably the
Severn, Thames, and Trent.
Canals
Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be easily
transported across the country. By the 1820s, a national network was
in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the
organization and methods later used to construct the railways.
Roads & Railways
Railways helped Britain's trade enormously, providing a quick and easy way of
to transport mail and news.




Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, Llangollen,
Wales

Puffing Billy, an early railway
steam locomotive, constructed in
1813-1814 for colliery work.

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Rise of Metal-frame Architecture
A. Early Modern ca. 1850-
1900

B. Late Modern ca. 1900-60

C. Postmodern ca.
1960-present
Culmination of iron-frame
architecture (Crystal
Palace, Eiffel Tower)
Chicago school: skyscrapers,
functionalism Louis
Sullivan)international style
(Gropius, Corbusier, Mies),
Wright (organic architecture)
Total aesthetic freedom
D.Art Deco ca.
1920-40
Antonio Gaudi
E. Art Nouveau ca.
1890-1910
The Thames Tunnel (opened 1843).
Portland Cement was used in the
world's first underwater tunnel

Cotton mills in Ancoats about 1820
7
Social effects of the
Industrial Revolution



John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at
Derby.
England ("Cottonopolis"), pictured in
1840, showing the mass of factory
chimneys
8

In terms of social structure, the Industrial
Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle
class of industrialists and businessmen over a
landed class of nobility and gentry.
Ordinary working people found increased
opportunities for employment in the new mills
and factories, but these were often under strict
working conditions with long hours of labour
dominated by a pace set by machines. However,
harsh working conditions were prevalent long
before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-
industrial society was very static and often
cruelchild labour, dirty living conditions, and
long working hours were just as prevalent before
the Industrial Revolution.
York





Social effects of the
Industrial Revolution

The transition to industrialisation was not
without difficulty. Some industrialists themselves
tried to improve factory and living conditions for
their workers. One of the earliest such reformers
was Robert Owen, known for his pioneering
efforts in improving conditions for workers at the
New Lanark mills, and often regarded as one of
the key thinkers of the early socialist movement.

.
New Lanark-Ideal Worker Village- Robert
Owen



Over London by Rail Gustave
Dor c.1870.Shows the
densely populated and polluted
environments created in the
new industrial cities.
9





Social effects of the
Industrial Revolution


.
Pitiable living conditions



Workers- Lancanshire
Whole streets, unpaved and without drains or main
sewers, are worn into deep ruts and holes in which
water constantly stagnates, and are so covered
with refuse and excrement as to be impassable
from depth of mud and intolerable stench.
As a result of the Revolution, huge numbers of the
working class died due to diseases spreading
through the cramped living conditions. Chest
diseases from the mines, cholera from polluted
water and typhoid were also extremely common,
as was smallpox. Accidents in factories with child
and female workers were regular. Strikes and riots
by workers were also relatively common.
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Modern Architecture Part -2
Materials of Modern Architecture
Age of iron and steam
(age of iron-frame
architecture)
ca. 1750-1900
Age of steel and electricity
(age of steel-frame
architecture)
ca. 1900-present
iron-frame masonry
buildings,
iron-and-glass buildings,
iron bridges
steel framing and reinforced
concrete serve as the
primary structural materials
of large-scale architecture
A cast iron frame must use arched construction. The alternative, post-and-beam
construction, is not feasible due to the brittleness of cast iron. (The term
brittle is equivalent to lacking in tensile strength)
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Post-and-beam Construction vs. Arched Construction
The familiar post-and-beam metal frames of todays architecture only became
possible with the mass-production of steel , which has immense tensile strength.
During the steel and electricity phase of the industrial age, which could also be
called the age of steel-frame architecture, steel and reinforced concrete became
the predominant structural materials of large-scale architecture.
Reinforced concrete which is simply concrete filled with reinforcing steel bars, or
rebars, is thus combining the tensile strength of steel with the compressive
strength of concrete.
Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

12
Early Modern Architecture
ca. 1850-1900

Iron-frame architecture, which flourished primarily in England, France, and (eventually) the United
States, occupies the transitional zone between traditional and modern architecture.
Iron-frame buildings were erected mainly during the age of iron and steam (ca. 1750-1900). As noted
earlier, this architecture included iron-frame masonry buildings, iron-and-glass buildings, and iron
bridges.


Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

13
Utilitarian structures (and utilitarian products in general) were important for demonstrating the
aesthetic potential of plain, mass-produced materials. Whereas iron supports in grand architecture were
often hidden behind masonry (such that the buildings retained a traditional appearance), they were left
exposed in structures where appearance was deemed unimportant (e.g. mills, factories) or where
masonry was unnecessary (e.g. bridges, railway stations).

Utilitarian buildings also often lacked traditional ornamentation, again due to lack of concern for
appearance.

As the nineteenth century drew on, many architects began to embrace these features (plain industrial
materials and lack of ornamentation) as aesthetically desirable.
Early Modern Architecture
ca. 1850-1900

Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

14
Abraham Darby commissioned this painting by William Williams in 1780 to promote the Bridge. There are
482 main castings, but with the deck facings and railings the number rises to 1,736. There were no injuries
during the construction process, which took three months during the summer of 1779, although work on
the approach roads continued for another two years. The Bridge was opened to traffic on 1st January 1781.
Movement in the south abutment was severe and it had to be demolished in 1802 and replaced by two
timber side arches, which in turn were replaced in cast iron in 1821 and remain to this day. In 1934 the
Bridge was closed to vehicles and scheduled as an ancient monument, but pedestrian tolls continued until
1950.
Universally recognised as the symbol of the Industrial Revolution, Severn the Iron Bridge stands at the
heart of the Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site.
The Severn Bridge
15
Early Modern Architecture
ca. 1850-1900
The Severn Bridge- An aerial View.
It is still used as a foot over bridge
16
Severn Bridge:
The stages of construction
All the large castings were made individually as they all were slightly different. The joints would all
be familiar to a carpenter - mortise and tenons, dovetails and wedges - but this was the traditional
way in which iron structures were joined at the time.
17
Iron-and-glass architecture culminated in the mid-nineteenth century, with Londons Crystal
Palace (destroyed), designed by Joseph Paxton (a renowned architect of greenhouses) as the main
pavilion of the first Worlds Fair. The Crystal Palace was a cast-iron and plate-glass building originally
erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. More than 14,000
exhibitors from around the world gathered in the Palace's 990,000 square feet (92,000 m2) of exhibition
space to display examples of the latest technology developed in the Industrial Revolution.


Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

18
Early Modern Architecture
ca. 1850-1900: The Crystal Palace


The Great Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m) long, with an interior height of 128 feet (39 m).Because of the
recent invention of the cast plate glass method in 1848, which allowed for large sheets of cheap but strong glass, it
was at the time the largest amount of glass ever seen in a building and astonished visitors with its clear walls and
ceilings that did not require interior lights, thus a "Crystal Palace".

Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

19
Early Modern Architecture
ca. 1850-1900: The Crystal Palace








Early Modern Architecture
ca. 1850-1900

Iron-and-glass architecture culminated
in the mid-nineteenth century, with
Londons Crystal Palace (destroyed),
designed by Joseph Paxton as the main
pavilion of the first Worlds Fair.

Then, near the end of the nineteenth
century, the foremost iron-frame
structure of all time was constructed:
the Eiffel Tower, designed by the bridge
engineer Gustave Eiffel. The fierce
controversy provoked by the towers
modern aesthetic illustrates the eras
lack of mainstream acceptance for plain,
unornamented construction.
Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

20

The Eiffel Tower, designed by Gustave Eiffel. The fierce controversy provoked by the towers
modern aesthetic illustrates the eras lack of mainstream acceptance for plain, unornamented
construction. The Eiffel Tower is an iron lattice tower located on the Champ de Mars in Paris,
named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower.

Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

Early Modern Architecture
ca. 1850-1900
21








Early Modern Architecture
ca. 1850-1900
The Guaranty Building, which is now called
the Prudential Building, was designed by
Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler, and built
in Buffalo, New York. Sullivan's design for the
building was based on his belief that "form
follows function"

22









The next step in the development of modern architecture was the shift from iron-frame to steel-frame
construction. Steel-frame architecture emerged in Chicago, among a circle of architects known as the
Chicago school, which flourished ca. 1880-1900. At this point in history, architects faced growing
pressure to extend buildings upward, as cities grew and property values soared. In response, the
Chicago school built the worlds first skyscrapers. (A good definition of skyscraper, for the purposes
of architectural history, is a metal-frame building at least one hundred feet tall.) The Home Insurance
Building (1884; demolished), by William Le Baron Jenney (a member of the Chicago school), is usually
considered the very first skyscraper.

Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

Early Modern Architecture
ca. 1850-1900
23


Early Modern Architecture
ca. 1850-1900
While this building featured a metal frame
composed of both iron and steel, pure steel-
frame construction emerged (in works of the
Chicago school) within a decade.
It should be emphasized that in metal-frame
architecture, the entire weight of the building is
supported by the frame. The buildings walls thus
serve as mere curtains or screens, which are
hung upon the frame merely to seal the buildings
interior from the elements. In other words, the
metal frame is the buildings skeleton, while the
walls are its skin.
The skyscraper was the great technical
achievement of the Chicago school. Yet the school
is also responsible for a great aesthetic
achievement: the gradual reduction of traditional
ornamentation in skyscraper design.
Whereas buildings of ordinary height lend
themselves well to traditional styles, skyscrapers
were an entirely new building type, for which
traditional aesthetics proved unsatisfactory;
consequently, skyscrapers accelerated the
development of the modern aesthetic.

Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

24








Early Modern Architecture
This transition away from traditional ornamentation
culminated in the development of functionalism by Louis
Sullivan, the foremost architect of the Chicago school.
Functionalism is an aesthetic approach in which a building
is simply designed according to its function, then graced
with features that are naturally suggested by its internal
structure.6 This approach, which leads to the simple
geometry of the modern aesthetic, is aptly summarized in
Sullivans guiding principle: form follows function.


Functionalism provided the modern aesthetic with a
theoretical foundation; consequently, Sullivan is often
referred to as the father of modern architecture.
Sullivans masterpiece is the Wainwright Building. The
exterior of this building reflects its three-part internal plan
(a two-story base, a middle section with seven floors of
offices, and a service floor at the top), and a brick pier
indicates each column in the steel frame.

The horizontal dividers are recessed behind the piers,
which emphasizes the buildings verticality: an aesthetic
choice that illustrates the creative freedom within the
bounds of functionalism.5 Most surfaces are plain,
although the horizontal dividers feature stucco decoration.


Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

The intricate frieze along
the top of the building
along with the bull's-eye
windows
25
Art Nouveau
In the meantime, a rival aesthetic emerged: Art Nouveau,
a style that flourished in Europe and America at the turn of
the century (ca. 1890-1910).7 Like functionalism, Art
Nouveau was purposely developed as an all-new aesthetic,
free of traditional ornamentation. Yet this was an
exuberantly decorative style, defined by organic, curving,
asymmetrical lines inspired by natural forms (e.g. stems,
flowers, vines, insect wings).

Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

The intricate frieze along
the top of the building
along with the bull's-eye
windows
The piers read as pillars
26
Art Nouveau
The most overt architectural expression of Art
Nouveau is found in the growing buildings of
Antonio Gaudi, whose masterpiece is the Sagrada
Familia, a cathedral in Barcelona. Casa Mila, also in
Barcelona, is his foremost residential work.

Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

The intricate frieze along
the top of the building
along with the bull's-eye
windows
The piers read as pillars
The Sagrada Familia, a cathedral in
Barcelona
Casa Mila- Barcelona
27




During the period ca. 1920-40 (i.e. the interwar period), another short-lived rival to mainstream modernism
flourished: Art Deco. Like the modern aesthetic, Art Deco shuns traditional decoration in favor of plain geometric
forms. The main difference is that, compared with the light minimalism of the modern aesthetic, Art Deco works
typically look heavy and contrived.
Distinctive features of Art Deco architecture include setbacks (inward steps), as well as narrow strips of windows
(with strips of concrete/masonry between them, which gives the building a sense of heavy construction). Although
Art Deco was primarily a French style, it culminated architecturally in the United States. The foremost examples
are found in New York: the GE Building(the centerpiece of Rockefeller Centre), the Chrysler Building, and the
Empire State Building.
Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

The piers read as pillars
GE Building
The Chrisler
The Empire State Building
Art Deco
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The Bauhaus, German school of design by Walter Gropius

In the early twentieth century, the modern aesthetic (simple, unadorned geometric forms) finally matured,
becoming the mainstream aesthetic of architecture and design across the world. This was achieved primarily by
the Bauhaus, a German school of design that operated for most of the interwar period. The school was closed
when the Nazi government came to power, forcing many of its scholars to emigrate to the United States, where
they continued to serve as leaders of the architecture/design world (such that the Bauhaus age actually
stretched decades beyond the closure of the school).

Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

The piers read as pillars
Late Modern Architecture ca. 1900-1960
29



The International Style
The scope of Bauhaus efforts included architecture, visual art, interior design, graphic design, and industrial
design (product design). It should be noted that while Bauhaus designers generally embraced the aesthetic theory
of functionalism, deliberate use of this theory (or even familiarity with it) is not a prerequisite to designing works
that feature the modern aesthetic. Thus, for any given modern-style building or object, the designer may or may
not have had functionalism in mind.
The modern aesthetic reached maturity when excess material (including traditional ornamentation) had been
stripped away, leaving only a basic structure of plain geometric forms. As noted above, this maturation was
achieved in the early twentieth century, with the Bauhaus leading the way (in terms of both innovation and
propagation). Architecture that features the mature modern aesthetic is known as international style architecture,
due to the rapid global diffusion of this style once it emerged.
Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

The piers read as pillars
The scope of Bauhaus included
interiors, furniture and accessories
30




The international styles three most influential pioneers were Gropius, Corbusier, and Mies.
Walter Gropius, founder and first director of the Bauhaus, designed the buildings of the schools second
campus. Plain walls (white and grey) and screens of glass, sometimes several stories in height, predominate.
Gropius balconies showcase an impressive new structural possibility of steel-frame construction:
cantilevering (platforms fixed only at one end), which further contributes to a sense of architectural
weightlessness.


Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

The piers read as pillars
The International Style
31





The Swiss architect Le Corbusier, though not a member of the Bauhaus, absorbed
and became a leading figure of the international style. He preferred smooth expanses
of white reinforced concrete pierced with horizontal strip windows, as well as a
degree of curvilinear geometry . Le Corbusiers masterpiece is the Villa Savoye.

Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

The 5 points of Architecture in the Villa Savoye:
1.Ribbon Window, 2.Roof gardens, 3.Pilotis, 4.free plan,5.free facade
The International Style
32




While Gropius and Le Corbusier made ample use of reinforced concrete, pure glass-and-steel construction in
the international style was perfected by Mies van der Rohe (another director of the Bauhaus), who believed
so firmly in eliminating all embellishment that his guiding principle was simply less is more. Mies brought
the international style to the height of its influence, as descendants of his glass-and-steel skyscrapers
appeared in every corner of the globe. The Seagram Building in New York, essentially a steel frame sheathed
in curtains of glass, is often considered his masterpiece. The Lake Shore drive apartments brought in a
revolution in high-rise residential lifestyle.


Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

The piers read as pillars
The International Style
The Seagram Building
The Lakeshore Drive Apartments-
Chicago
33




Contemporary with the Bauhaus age was the career of the greatest American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright, who
focused primarily on residential designs. Wright sought to make his buildings organic; that is, to adjust their layouts
and features until they merge with their natural surroundings, rather than simply imposing a rectangular box of a
house on any given locale. Wright felt that a house should not be located on a site, but rather be a natural extension
of the site.The exterior walls of a Wright house are articulated in a relatively complex, asymmetrical manner (so as to
avoid a stiff, boxy appearance), and the house is often visually united with the earth via broad, flat surfaces parallel
with the ground (e.g. eaves, cantilevered balconies). Interiors are open and flowing (rather than mechanically
subdivided into small rooms), and ample windows (including windows that bend around corners) throughout the
house merge the interior with the world outside. A mixture of building materials (e.g. brick, wood, stone, concrete)
further contributes to the sense of the house as an organic feature of the landscape.

The piers read as pillars
The International Style
The Robie House
34





Despite the contrast between functionalism and
Wrights organicism, both are clearly modern
(i.e. not based on anything traditional), and
consequently similar in appearance to a
significant degree. Wright shared the
functionalist appreciation for simple geometry
and plain, unadorned surfaces, and he
embraced mass-produced building materials.
One could categorize Wrights architecture as a
branch of the international style, or as a cousin.
Wrights first great works were his Prairie
Houses, built in the Midwest; best-known
among them is Robie House in Chicago. His
most famous building of all is Fallingwater,
Pennsylvania, while his foremost urban work is
the Guggenheim Museum in New York.


The piers read as pillars
The International Style
The Falling Water Bear Run Pennsylvania
The Guggenheim Museum
35

Toward the end of the Late Modern period, the
international style experienced two notable
trends. One was more extensive use of
curvilinear geometry (as illustrated by Wrights
Guggenheim Museum, as well as Corbusiers
later work). The other was brutalism: a style that
features harsh, bulky concrete structures, often
with unfinished surfaces. These trends are
considered the transitional phase to postmodern
architecture, as architects grew impatient with
the severe simplicity of the international style.

The piers read as pillars
After The International Style
36
Postmodern Architecture
ca. 1960-present
As advances in building materials and engineering opened up
incredible new possibilities for architectural design, it was only a
matter of time until the severe international style was rejected in
favor of total aesthetic freedom. (Given its timeless appeal,
construction in the international style has continued since ca. 1960,
albeit to a more limited extent.) Consequently, it is difficult to
generalize postmodern architecture beyond the observation that
anything goes.

The piers read as pillars
Postmodern Architecture
The Sydney Opera house
37





Nonetheless, postmodern architecture does exhibit a range of common
features, such as complex geometry (including curvilinear geometry),
blending of modern and traditional elements, colorfulness, and
playfulness. Many postmodern buildings have a sleek, futuristic
appearance; these are often described as high-tech or space-age
architecture.


The piers read as pillars
Postmodern Architecture
The Gherkin Building
38
Thankyou