lecture #1c

Mechanical Properties of Materials

1. Strength
2. Stiffness
3. Resilience
4. Hardness
5. Toughness
6. Fatigue
7. Creep
Relative Mechanical Properties
of Materials at Room Temperature

Strength Hardness
Glass fibers
Graphite fibers
Kevlar fibers
Carbides
Molybdenum
Steels
Tantalum
Titanium
Copper
Reinforced
Reinforced
Thermoplastics
Lead
Diamond
Cubic boron nitride
Carbides
Hardened steels
Titanium
Cast irons
Copper
Thermosets
Magnesium
thermosets
thermoplastics
Lead
Rubbers


Toughness Stiffness
Ductile metals
Reinforced plastics
Thermoplastics
Wood
Thermosets
Ceramics
Glass
Ceramics
Reinforced
Thermoplastics
Tin
Thermoplastics
Diamond
Carbides
Tungsten
Steel
Copper
Titanium
Aluminum
Tantalum
plastics
Wood
Thermosets

Relative Mechanical Properties
of Materials at Room Temperature
Mechanical Tests:
1. Tension
2. Compression
3. Torsion
4. Bending
5. Hardness
6. Impact
7. Fatigue
8. Creep
Tension Test
Strength
(Ultimate Tensile Strength)
Ductility
(Maximum Elongation)
Stiffness
(Elastic modulus)
Poisson Ratio Work Hardening
Tensile Testing Machine
Tensile Test Specimen
(a) A standard
tensile test
specimen
before and
after pulling,
showing
original and
final gage
lengths.
Tensile Test
Test specimen preparation In the United
States, the specimen is prepared
according to ASTM (Other standards: JIS,
ISO-EN etc.)
The specimen is mounted between the
grips of the tensile test machine.
Specimen are test different rates of
deformation

Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain
Engineering Stress, (o) =
Average uniaxial tensile force, (P) divided by
original cross-sectional area, (A
0
)

0
A
P
= o
Engineering Strain, (e) =
Ratio of a change of length (L) divided by the
original length (L
0
) due an applied force
0 0
0
L
L
L
L L
e
A
=

=
Load Extension Stress - Strain
Mechanical Properties of
Tensile Test:
1. Elastic Modulus or Youngs Moulus
2. Yield Strength (0.2% Offset)
3. Ultimate Tensile Strength
4. Uniform Elongation (Total Strain
before necking)
5. Elongation at fracture
6. Reduction in area
Engineering Stress-Strain Curve
Started point that stress and strain
are no longer proportional
(proportional limit)
YOUNG' S MODULUS
The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region is the modulus
of elasticity or Young's modulus (E)-to measure the material
stiffness
The linear relationship is known as Hookes Law
Unit: Quoted in GPa
Loading and Unloading of
Tensile-Test Specimen
Elastic Recovery

Permanent Deformation

Note that:
during unloading, the
curve follows a path
parallel to the original
elastic slope.
Poisson's ratio
= Strain (lateral)
Strain (longitudinal)
The elongation of
specimen under tension
is accompanied by lateral
contraction.

Metal; v~ 0.3
Ideal (Upper limit) = 0.5
Ductility
The extent of plastic deformation that the material undergoes
before fracture
2 common measurement
Elongation Reduction of Area
e.g The ductility chalk is zero, chewing gum stretch
and necks before it fails
= (l
f
- l
o
)
l
o
= - (Af Ao)
Ao
Mechanical Properties of Various
Materials at Room Temperature



Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals.
Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. (psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.



Metals (Wrought)


E (GPa)


Y (MPa)


UTS (MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
Aluminum and its
alloys
Copper and its alloys
Lead and its alloys
Magnesium and its
alloys
Molybdenum and its
alloys
Nickel and its alloys
Steels
Titanium and its alloys
Tungsten and its alloys
6979
105150
14
4145
330360
180214
190200
80130
350400
35550
761100
14
130305
802070
1051200
2051725
3441380
550690
90600
1401310
2055
240380
902340
3451450
4151750
4151450
620760
454
653
509
215
4030
605
652
257
0
Mechanical Properties of Various
Materials at Room Temperature

Nonmetallic materials
Ceramics
Diamond
Glass and porcelain
Rubbers
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics,
reinforced
Thermosets
Boron fibers
Carbon fibers
Glass fibers
Kevlar fibers
701000
8201050
70-80
0.010.1
1.43.4
250
3.517
380
275415
7385
62117











1402600

140

780
20120
35170
3500
20003000
35004600
2800
0



10005
101
0
0
0
0
0
Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals.
Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. (psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.


True Stress and True Strain
True stress- Average uniaxial force divided by
instantaneous cross-sectional area (CALCULATE AT
FRACTURE)
True strain -
i
true
A
P
= o
o
i
l
l
true
l
l
l
dl i
o
ln = =
}
c
True Strain
True strain or logarithmic strain:
A specimen of 50 mm in height compressed between flat
platens to a final height of zero (infinite deformation)
0 0
0
L
L
L
L L
e
A
=

=
o
i
true
l
l
ln = c
= -1
=
Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve
The true properties are calculated from
engineering properties:
The true stress-strain curve is useful only up to the
ultimate load where necking is initiated. After the
onset of necking, the length changes are localized
in the neck, so the nominal strain, e, which involves
a measurement using the entire gauge length cannot
be used to calculate the true strain.(IN NECKING
AREA)
Necking Corrections
Beyond maximum load the
true stress should be
determined from actual
measurements of load and
cross-sectional area.
Beyond maximum load the
true strain should be based on
actual area or diameter
measurements.
*Learned in a more advance courses
Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve
True Stress-True Strain Curves
Temperature Effects on Stress-
Strain Curves
Increasing temperature effects on
stress-strain curves:
a. Raise ductility and toughness
b. Lower yield stress and the modulus of
elasticity
c. Lower the ultimate tensile strength,
d. Lower the toughness (area under the
curve) of materials.
Temperature Effects on Stress-
Strain Curves
Rate of deformation effects
Deformation rate defined as the speed at which
tension test is being carried in unit (m/s, ft/min)
The strain rate function of the specimen length.
Increase Ultimate Tensile Strength

Effect of Strain Rate on Ultimate
Tensile Strength
Note:
Combine temperature
effect
Typical Ranges of Strain and
Deformation Rate in Manufacturing
Processes


Process

True strain
Deformation rate
(m/s)
Cold working
Forging, rolling
Wire and tube drawing
Explosive forming
Hot working and warm
working
Forging, rolling
Extrusion
Machining
Sheet-metal forming
Superplastic forming

0.10.5
0.050.5
0.050.2

0.10.5
25
110
0.10.5
0.23

0.1100
0.1100
10100

0.130
0.11
0.1100
0.052
10
-4
-10
-2


True Stress True Strain Curve
True stress-true strain
curve plotted on
Log-log paper
Based on the
corrected curve
Typical Values for K and n at
Room Temperature

K (MPa) n
Aluminum
1100O
2024T4
6061O
6061T6
Brass
7030, annealed
8515, cold-rolled
Copper, annealed
Steel
Low-C annealed
304 stainless, annealed
410 stainless, annealed

180
690
205
410

900
580
315

530
1275
960

0.20
0.16
0.20
0.05

0.49
0.34
0.54

0.26
0.45
0.10

1. Calculate the engineering stress in SI units on a 2.00-cm-
diameter rod that is subjected to a load of 1300 kg.

2. Calculate the engineering stress in SI units on a bar 15 cm
long and having a cross section of 4.25 mm x 12.0 mm that
is subjected to a load of 5000 kg.
Try this..
Problem
1. If the original gage length of a round, 15 mm tensile bar is 50 mm and the final
gage length is 65 mm and the final diameter is 7 mm, determine the:
i) Elongation, %
ii) Ductility index (reduction in area,%)
Question:
1. A 0.500 diameter round sample of a 1030 carbon steel is pulled
to failure in a tensile testing machine. The diameter of the sample
was 0.343 in. at the fracture surface. Calculate the percent of
reduction in area sample.
Assignment
1. Explain about tensile test? What can we understand
from tensile test?

2. Define engineering stress and strain with true stress
and true strain?

3. Define ductility. Give examples of metals that have
good ductility.

4. Distinguish between elastic and plastic deformation?
5. The following engineering stress-strain data were obtained
for a 0.2% C plain-carbon steel.
(a) Plot the engineering stress-strain curve.
(b) Plot the true stress-strain curve
(c) Determine the ultimate tensile strength of the alloy.
(d) Determine the percent elongation at fracture.
Tutorials
Distinguish between engineering stress and true stress
What is the reason that a yield strength is defined as
0.2% offset strength?
Thank You
CHAPTER 3
Compression
Torsions
Bending
Hardness
Impact
Compression
Test
Applies a load
that squeezes
the ends of a
cylindrical
specimen
between two
platens
Compression test:
(a) compression force applied to test piece in
(1) and (2) resulting change in height
Compression
Disk test on a brittle material,
showing the direction of loading
and the fracture path.
Many process such as forging, rolling and extrusion subjected to
compressive forces.
Compression test , where specimen is subjected to compressive
load
Compressing a solid cylindric specimen
between two flat dies
Disc Test
Compression test:
Setup for the test with size of test specimen
exaggerated
Tensile testing machine can be used
(lower section)
Engineering Stress in
Compression
As the specimen is compressed, its height is
reduced and cross-sectional area is
increased
o
e
A
F
= o
where A
o
= original area of the specimen
Engineering Strain in
Compression
Engineering strain is defined
Since height is reduced during compression, value of e is
negative (the negative sign is usually ignored when
expressing compression strain)
o
o
h
h h
e

=
Shape of plastic
region is different
from tensile test
because
cross-section
increases
Calculated value
of engineering
stress is higher
Typical engineering stress-strain curve for a compression test
Tensile Test vs. Compression Test
Although differences exist between
engineering stress-strain curves in tension and
compression, the true stress-strain
relationships are nearly identical
Since tensile test results are more common,
flow curve values (K and n) from tensile test
data can be applied to compression operations
When using tensile K and n data for
compression, ignore necking, which is a
phenomenon peculiar to straining induced by
tensile stresses
Torsional stress
Twisting
Force acting to turn one end around the
longitudinal axis of a rod while the other end
remains fixed.
Torque = P (force) x r (radius), lb-ft
Torque produces a shear stress and shear
deformation both at 90
o
and parallel to axis-
and separating stress at 45
o
, which causes
brittle metals to fail (chalk)
Torsion-Test Specimen
Typical torsion-test specimen; it is mounted between the two heads of
a testing machine and twisted. Note the shear deformation of an
element in the reduced section of the specimen.
Shear Properties
Application of stresses in opposite
directions on either side of a thin
element
Shear (a) stress and (b) strain
Shear Stress and Strain
Shear stress defined as

where F = applied force; and A = area over which
deflection occurs.

Shear strain defined as

where o = deflection element; and b = distance
over which deflection occurs
A
F
= t
b
o
=
Typical shear stress-strain curve from a
torsion test
Shear Elastic Stress-Strain
Relationship
In the elastic region, the relationship is
defined as
t G =
where G = shear modulus, or shear modulus of
elasticity
For most materials, G ~ 0.4E, where E = elastic
modulus
Shear Plastic Stress-Strain
Relationship
Relationship similar to flow curve
Shear stress at fracture = shear strength S
Shear strength can be estimated from tensile
strength: S ~ 0.7(TS)
Since cross-sectional area of test
specimen in torsion test does not change
as in tensile and compression, engineering
stress-strain curve for shear ~ true
stress-strain curve
Bending
Two bend-test methods for brittle materials:
(a) three-point bending;
(b)four-point bending.
The areas on the beams represent the bending-moment
diagrams, described in texts on mechanics of solids.
Note the region of constant maximum bending moment
in (b); by contrast, the maximum bending moment
occurs only at the center of the specimen in (a).
Bending of a rectangular cross-section results
in both tensile and compressive stresses in the
material: (1) initial loading; (2) highly stressed
and strained specimen; and (3) bent part
Testing of Brittle Materials
Hard brittle materials (e.g., ceramics)
possess elasticity but little or no plasticity
Often tested by a bending test (also called
flexure test)
Specimen of rectangular cross-section is
positioned between two supports, and a load
is applied at its center

Testing of Brittle Materials
Brittle materials do not flex
They deform elastically until fracture
Failure occurs because tensile strength of
outer fibers of specimen are exceeded
Failure type: cleavage - common with
ceramics and metals at low temperatures, in
which separation rather than slip occurs along
certain crystallographic planes
Transverse Rupture Strength
The strength value derived from the bending
test:
2
5 1
bt
FL
TRS
.
=
where TRS = transverse rupture strength; F =
applied load at fracture; L = length of specimen
between supports; and b and t are dimensions of
cross-section
Hardness
Resistance to permanent indentation
Good hardness generally means material is resistant
to scratching and wear
Most tooling used in manufacturing must be hard for
scratch and wear resistance
measure of a materials resistance to
penetration
2 most common stationary hardness tests
Brinell - stress test
Rockwell - strain test

Hardness Tests
Commonly used for assessing material properties
because they are quick and convenient
Variety of testing methods are appropriate due to
differences in hardness among different materials
Vickers (HV) and Knoop (HK)- similar to Brinell
(stress tests), but microhardness
Other test methods are also available, such as
Scleroscope, and durometer
Scleroscope - rebound of a tup or hammer.
Mohs - scratch test

Hardness Tests
Figure 2.12 General
characteristics of
hardness-testing
methods and formulas
for calculating
hardness. The
quantity P is the load
applied. Source: H.
W. Hayden, et al., The
Structure and
Properties of
Materials, Vol. III
(John Wiley & Sons,
1965).
Widely used for
testing metals and
nonmetals of low
to medium
hardness
A hard ball is
pressed into
specimen surface
with a load of 500,
1500, or 3000 kg
Figure 3.14 - Hardness testing methods: (a) Brinell
Brinell Hardness
Brinell Testing
(c)
Indentation geometry in Brinell
testing; (a) annealed metal; (b)
work-hardened metal; (c)
deformation of mild steel under
a spherical indenter. Note that
the depth of the permanently
deformed zone is about one
order of magnitude larger than
the depth of indentation. For a
hardness test to be valid, this
zone should be fully developed
in the material. Source: M. C.
Shaw and C. T. Yang.
Brinell Hardness Number
Load divided into indentation area = Brinell
Hardness Number (BHN)
) (
2 2
2
i b b b
D D D D
F
HB

=
t
where HB = Brinell Hardness Number (BHN), F =
indentation load, kg; D
b
= diameter of ball, mm, and
D
i
= diameter of indentation, mm
Rockwell Hardness Test
Another widely used test
A cone shaped indenter is pressed into specimen
using a minor load of 10 kg, thus seating indenter in
material
Then, a major load of 150 kg is applied, causing
indenter to penetrate beyond its initial position
Additional penetration distance d is converted into a
Rockwell hardness reading by the testing machine
Figure 3.14 - Hardness testing methods: (b)
Rockwell:
(1) initial minor load and (2) major load
Hardness Conversion Chart
Chart for converting various hardness scales. Note the limited range of
most scales. Because of the many factors involved, these conversions
are approximate.
Toughness
Measure the amount of energy a material can
absorb before fracturing
Ability of metal can withstand an impact load
without fracturing
Experiment Impact test Izod & Charpy test
Impact Test
Specimens
Impact test specimens: (a) Charpy; (b) Izod.
Impact test
Transition
Temperature
Schematic illustration of transition temperature in metals.
E.g. Titanic hull steel transition temperature at -2 C
Carbon contents
Thank You
CHAPTER 3
Fatigue of Metals
Creep of Metals
Fracture of Metals
Fatigue Failure
Metal parts are often design under an assumption of a
single static load with a factor of safety (e.g. 0.5 of yield
stress).
Metal parts in service are often subjected to repetitive
loading.
Failure occurs after repetitious or cyclic loading.
Examples: shafts, connecting rods and gears.
Fatigue crack surface:
Refer to Figure 6.19 (3
rd
Edition)
Fatigue Failure
Example: Fatigue failure of keyed steel shaft.
A fatigue failure at a point of stress concentration (e.g.
sharp corners or notch).
Figure 6.19 (At the root of the keyway)
Stages of fatigue fracture are:
1. Nucleation.
2. Propagation (clamshell marks)
3. Fracture (Area under load are too small to support
further load).
Surface appearance: (1) smooth striations (clamshell
marks) and (2) rough surface formed by fracture
Fatigue Test
R.R. Moore reversed-bending fatigue test machine
Fatigue Test
E.g. R.R. Moore reversed-bending fatigue test machine.
The specimen is under bending load from the applied
weights.
Top surface is compressed and bottom part is stretched.
Rotation caused the bending stress to be alternated
between the top and bottom surface, i.e. cyclic loading
A revolution counter records when the fatigue failure
occurs in numbers of cycle (e.g. 10
6
cycles)
Test is repeated using a number of different loads to
cause different stress level.
S-N Curves
Typical S-N curves for two metals.
Note that, unlike steel, aluminium does not have an endurance limit.
S-N Curves
Data from the test are plotted as
Stress (S) versus Number of cycles (N)
Figure 6.23

There is a general decrease of the level of stress to cause failure
as the number cycles is increased.
For carbon steel, there is levelling off in the decrease.
The maximum stress that cause fatigue failure, regardless of the
number of cycles.

Endurance limit of fatigue limit
Carbon steels have an endurance limit of 0.4-0.5 time its UTS

A component can have an infinite life if design with stress level
below the endurance limit
Endurance Limit/Tensile Strength
versus Tensile Strength
Infinite life design is not always
possible.
E.g. Aluminium does not have an
endurance limit.
Small cyclic stress can cause
fatigue failure
Components need to be very light.

Other methods are available for
fatigue life calculation (Advance
course!, Section 6.4).

Aircraft parts are design to have
finite life and need to be change at
a specified intervals.
Factors that Affect the
Fatigue Strength of Metals
Stress concentration. Avoid sharp corners.

Surface roughness. Ensure smooth surface
finish.

Surface conditions. Surface harden to avoid
crack nucleation.

Environment. Chemical attack on surface
initiates cracks.
Creep
Creep is a permanent deformation, under a constant
static load over a period of time.
A process of slow plastic deformation
Even though the static load initially does cause
permanent deformation (i.e. stress level below yield
stress).
At an elevated temperature (for most metals).
Polymers are very susceptible to creep even at room
temperature!
Creep is important in high temperature applications,
e.g. gas turbines, steam lines, nuclear reactors.
Creep
A creep test involves in subjecting a specimen to a
constant tensile load at a certain temperature.

Measurements are taken for changes in length
(strain) at various time increments.

The creep test results are presented as Creep strain
vs. time, at a constant stress and temperature.

Three stages of creep;
- Primary,
- Secondary and
- Tertiary
Creep Curve
Creep
Begins with an instantaneous rapid elongation as the
load is applied.

Creep rate dc/dt, slope of the creep curve.

Primary creep is where the creep rate progressively
decreases with time.

Secondary creep is where the creep rate is constant
(steady state creep)

Tertiary creep is where creep rate rapidly increase
with time to the strain at fracture.
Creep
Shape of creep curve depends strongly on the
applied load (stress) and temperature.
The secondary creep is a constant creep rate
and referred to as the minimum creep rate.
For design data purposes, a specimen is
subjected to a minimum creep rate of 10
-5
percent/hour.
This data is used for design purposes.
To be learned in advanced mechanical
engineering courses.
Fracture
Static load ( Ultimate Tensile Strength,
although static load are design to a factor of
safety to yield strength)
Impact load (Design to absorb impact load
without fracturing, Fracture Toughness)
Cyclic load (Failure happens without
overloading, Fatigue Limit/advance method)
Creep load (Creep failure for at high
temperature for metal, design with constant
creep rate in mind/advance method)
Fracture of Metals
Fracture is the separation of a solid under stress into
two or more parts.
Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture, or a mixture
Ductile Fracture of a metal occurs after extensive
plastic deformation and is characterised by slow
crack propagation
Brittle Fracture happens with almost no plastic
deformations. Occurs in which the separation rather
than slip occurs along certain crystallographic planes
with rapid crack propagation:- common with ceramics
and metals (BCC) at low temperatures and high
strain rate
Ductile Fracture of a
Tensile-Test Specimen
(a) early stage of necking;
(b) small voids begin to form within the necked region;
(c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack;
(d) the rest of the cross-section begins to fail at the periphery,
by shearing;
(e) the final fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top fracture
surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.
Ductile Fracture
Surface of ductile fracture in
low-carbon steel, showing
dimples.

Fracture is usually initiated at
impurities, inclusions, or
preexisting voids
(microporosity) in the metal.

Source: K.-H. Habig and D.
Klaffke. Photo by BAM
Berlin/Germany.
Deformation of Soft and Hard
Inclusions in Ductile Fracture
Stages of Ductile Fracture
(b) small voids begin to form within the necked region;
(c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack;
Failure and Fracture of Materials in Tension
Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension:
(a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals;
(b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals
(c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals;
(d) complete ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100% reduction
of area.
Failure and Fracture of
Materials in Tension & Compression
Schematic illustration of types of failures in materials:
(a) necking and fracture of ductile materials;
(b) Buckling of ductile materials under a compressive load;
(c) fracture of brittle materials in compression;
(d) cracking on the barreled surface of ductile materials in compression.
Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals
propagates along the matrix of the grains.
Brittle fracture can also happens along
grain boundaries if the grain boundaries
are weaken by brittle film or segregation.
Figure 6.13 (3
rd
Edition): Brittle cleavage
fracture of ferritic ductile iron)
Brittle Fracture
Stages of Brittle fractures:
1. Plastic deformation concentrates dislocation along slip
planes at obstacles.
2. Shear stress build up at the blocked area, micro cracks
nucleated separating slip planes.
3. Further stress and stored elastic energy quickly
propagates cracks into fracture.

Torque produces a shear stress and shear
deformation both at 90 and normal to axis of shaft
Brittle fracture of metals fail at 45
Fracture Toughness Concept
Impact load i.e. high strain rate and low temperature favours brittle factures.
Impact tests (Izod/Charpy) do not provide date for design purposes for
material/components which already contains internal flaws or cracks.
Test specimens are intentionally made with cracks.
Introduction of stress intensity factors (K
IC
), to be learned in advance classes.
Mechanical Properties in
Design and Manufacturing
Mechanical properties determine a materials behavior when
subjected to mechanical stresses
Properties include elastic modulus, ductility, hardness, and
various measures of strength
Dilemma: mechanical properties desirable to the designer,
such as high strength, usually make manufacturing more
difficult
The manufacturing engineer should appreciate the design
viewpoint and the designer should be aware of the
manufacturing viewpoint
Why Mechanical Properties
Important?
Parameters Application
Hardness Components subject to wear
Fracture toughness Sudden highly stressed or safety critical
components
Fatigue life Repeated cyclic loading conditions
Impact properties Components exposed to sudden stress,
especially at low temperatures
Creep
Stiffness
Strength
High temperature operation
To retain accuracy of positions
Static load carrying capabilities
Stiffness-Weight Design Considerations
Example
Strain
Stress
E
Stiffer material
With cost considered, now polymers and metals area useful!
Engineering
Applications
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N

o
working
=
o
y
N
Often N is
between
1.2 and 4
Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.

o
working
=
o
y
N

220, 000N
t d
2
/ 4
|
\

|
.
|
5
Design (Safety) factor
QUESTIONS
Describe the difference between brittle and ductile fracture?
Describe the difference between strain-rate and deformation
rate?
Describe a metal fatigue failure.
Describe the four major factors that affect the fatigue strength
of a metal.
Explanation on compression, torsion, and hardness test
Explanation on toughness, fatigue and creep test
1. Sketch a typical stress-strain diagram obtained from a
tensile test carried out on a steel specimen. Label the
parts of the diagram that provide information on the
properties of the specimen being tested.

2. For what special design considerations and/or
operating conditions do the following material
properties become important?
a) fracture toughness
b) fatigue life
c) impact properties
d) hardness
e) creep


1. During a tensile test in which the starting gage length = 125.0 mm
and the cross- sectional area = 62.5 mm2, the following force and
gage length data are collected
(1) 17,793 N at 125.23 mm,
(2) (2) 23,042 N at 131.25 mm,
(3) (3) 27,579 N at 140.05 mm,
(4) (4) 28, 913 N at 147.01 mm,
(5) (5) 27,578 N at 153.00 mm, and
(6) (6) 20,462 N at 160.10 mm.
(7) The maximum load is 28,913 N and the final data point occurred
immediately prior to failure.
a) Plot the engineering stress strain curve
b) Yield strength
c) Modulus of elasticity
d) Tensile strength.

1. A test specimen in a tensile test has a gauge length of
2.0 in and an area = 0.5 in
2
. During the test the
specimen yields under a load of 32000 Ib. The
corresponding gauge length = 2.0083 in. The maximum
load = 60,000 Ib is reached at a gauge length = 2.6 in.
Determine;
a) Yield strength
b) Modulus of elasticity, E
c) Tensile strength, TS

ANSWER
1. A bar with cross section of 9 x 4 mm2, which is 36 x 10-6 m2 load of 3500 kg
convert to Newton, we get 3500 * 9.81 = 34335 N then the eng. stress is load/area
= 34335/(36 x 10-6) = 9.54 x 108 N/m2 = 9.54 x 108 Pa

2. A brass wire is cold drawn 25% to a diameter of 1.10 mm (radius 0.55 mm)
( Note : percent reduction concern on the area not a diameter)

then the area after 25% cold drawn is x 0.552 = 0.95 mm2
the percent reduction is (Ao A)/Ao * 100 then,
(Ao 0.95) / Ao x 100 = 25, then Ao = 1.2676 mm2
then it is further cold drawn to 0.9 mm ( r is 0.45 mm)
the final area will be x 0.452 = 0.6364 mm2
therefore, the total percent cold reduction is (1.2676-0.6364)/1.2676 x 100
49.79 %

3. s = F/A = F/Ao (l/lo) = s ( l/lo)
e= l-lo /lo => e = l/lo -1 => l/lo = e + 1
s = s (e+1)
= (2.75 MPa)(0.0035 + 1)
= 2.76 MPa

EXERCISE
1. The engineering stress (s) is 2.75 MPa.
The engineering strain (e) is 0.35%.
Calculate the true stress (s)
Hint : e = l lo
lo
ANSWER
1. The following engineering stress-strain
data were obtained for a 0.1 % C plain
carbon steel.
a) Plot the engineering stress strain curve.
b) Determine the elastic modulus of the alloy.
c) The yield strength of the alloy
d) Determine the ultimate tensile strength of the
alloy.
e) Determine the percent elongation at fracture.
EXERCISE
Engineering
Stress (ksi)
Engineering Strain
(in/in)
Engineering
Stress (ksi)
Engineering Strain
(in/in)
0 0 80 0.06
35 0.001 81 0.08
47 0.0015 80 0.10
60 0.002 78 0.12
70 0.005 74 0.14
73 0.01 70 0.16
77 0.02 61 0.18
79 0.04 56 0.19 (fracture)
EXERCISE
1. Calculate the engineering stress in SI
units on a bar 25 cm long and having a
cross section of 9.00 mm x 4.00 mm which
is subjected to a load of 3500 kg.
2. A brass wire is cold drawn 25% to a
diameter of 1.10 mm. It is then further cold
drawn to 0.900 mm. What is the total
percent cold reduction?


Thank You
lecture #1c
Introduction
Density
Electrical, Magnetic and Optical Properties
Thermal Properties
Corrosion Resistance
Physical Properties
Properties that define the behavior of
materials in response to physical forces other
than mechanical
Components in a product must do more than
simply withstand mechanical stresses
They must conduct electricity (or prevent
conduction), allow heat to transfer (or allow its
escape), transmit light (or block transmission),
and satisfy many other functions
Physical Properties in Materials
Selection
Important in manufacturing because they
often influence process performance
Examples:
In machining, thermal properties of the work
material determine the cutting temperature,
which affects how long tool can be used before
failure
In microelectronics, electrical properties of
silicon and how these properties can be altered
by chemical and physical processes is the basis
of semiconductor manufacturing
Physical Properties of Material
TABLE 3.2 Physical Properties of Materials, in Descending Order
Density Melting point Specific heat Thermal
conductivity
Thermal
expansion
Electrical
conductivity
Platinum
Gold
Tungsten
Tantalum
Lead
Silver
Molybdenum
Copper
Steel
Titanium
Aluminum
Beryllium
Glass
Magnesium
Plastics
Tungsten
Tantalum
Molybdenum
Columbium
Titanium
Iron
Beryllium
Copper
Gold
Silver
Aluminum
Magnesium
Lead
Tin
Plastics
Wood
Beryllium
Porcelain
Aluminum
Graphite
Glass
Titanium
Iron
Copper
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Lead
Silver
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium
Graphite
Tungsten
Beryllium
Zinc
Steel
Tantalum
Ceramics
Titanium
Glass
Plastics
Plastics
Lead
Tin
Magnesium
Aluminum
Copper
Steel
Gold
Ceramics
Glass
Tungsten
Silver
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium
Tungsten
Beryllium
Steel
Tin
Graphite
Ceramics
Glass
Plastics
Quartz




Density
The mass per unit volume (cm
3
= mL, m
3
, etc.) of
is called density, an intensive property.
Determined by atomic number and other factors
such as atomic radius, and atomic packing
Importance of Density
Important consideration in materials selection for a given
application, but it is generally not the only property of
interest
Relate to weight saving with major concerns to energy
consumption and power limitation such as in automotive
bodies and aircraft.
Strength is also important, and the two properties are
often related in a strength-to-weight ratio (specific
strength), which is tensile strength divided by its
density
Useful ratio in comparing materials for structural
applications in aircraft, automobiles, and other
products.
Specific Strength (tensile strength/density) and Specific
Stiffness (elastic modulus/density) at room temperature
Specific Strength vs Temperature
Specific strength (tensile strength/density) for a variety of materials as a
function of temperature.
Note the useful temperature range for these materials and the high
values for composite materials.
Electrical Properties
Engineering materials exhibit a great
variation in their capability to conduct
electricity
Flow of electrical current involves
movement of charge
carriers - infinitesimally small particles
possessing an electrical charge
In solids, these charge carriers are electrons
In a liquid solution, charge carriers are positive
and negative ions
Electrical Conductivity
A measure of how well a material accommodates
the transport of electric charge
A conductor such as a metal has high conductivity,
and an insulator like glass or a vacuum has low
conductivity
Unit 1/[m]
Electrical Resistivity
Property that defines a material's
capability to resist current flow
Resistivity is not a constant; it varies, as do
so many other properties, with temperature
For metals, resistivity increases with
temperature
Engineering Materials and
Electrical Properties
Metals are the best conductors of
electricity, because of their metallic bonding
Most ceramics and polymers, whose
electrons are tightly bound by covalent
and/or ionic bonding, are poor conductors
Many of these materials are used as
insulators because they possess high
resistivities
Semiconductors
A material whose resistivity lies between
insulators and conductors
Most common semiconductor material is
silicon, largely because of its abundance in
nature, relative low cost, and ease of
processing
What makes semiconductors unique is the
capacity to significantly alter conductivities in
their surface chemistries in very localized
areas to fabricate integrated circuits
Electrical Properties in
Manufacturing
Electric discharge machining - uses
electrical energy in the form of sparks to
remove material from metals
The important welding processes, such as
arc welding and resistance spot welding,
use electrical energy to melt the joint
metal
Capacity to alter electrical properties of
semiconductor materials is the basis for
microelectronics manufacturing
Piezoelectric Effect
Voltage produced between surfaces of a solid
dielectric (non-conducting substance) when a
mechanical stress is applied to it. A small
current may be produced as well.
The effect, discovered by Pierre Curie in 1883, is
exhibited by certain crystals, e.g., quartz and
Rochelle salt, and ceramic materials.
Conversely, an applied electric field can cause a
piezoelectric material to change dimensions.
Magnetic Properties
Magnetism is a phenomenon by which materials exert
an attractive or repulsive force on other materials.
2 types of magnetic materials:
1. Soft magnetic materials - materials can be easily
magnetized and demagnetized.
(e.g: cores for distribution power transformers)
2. Hard magnetic materials - permanent magnetic
and do not demagnetize easily.
(e.g: permanent magnets in loud speakers)
Ferromagnetism
The creation of a very large magnetization in a
material when subjected to an applied magnetic
field. After the applied field is removed the
ferromagnetic material retains much of the
magnetization.
One of the strongest forms of magnetism.
It is responsible for most of the magnetic
behaviour encountered in everyday life, and is the
basis for all permanent magnets (as well as the
metals that are noticably attracted to them).
Ferromagnetic materials: iron, cobalt, nickel
Ferrimagnetism
Permanent and large magnetism exhibited by
some ceramic materials.

Ferrimagnetic materials (ferrites) have low
conductivities and useful for electronics
applications.
Magnetostriction
Property of ferromagnetic materials to undergo a change
of their physical dimensions when subjected to a
magnetic field. This effect was first identified in 1842
by James Joule when observing a sample of nickel.
This property, which allow magnetostrictive materials to
convert magnetic energy into mechanical energy and
conversely, is used for the building of both actuation
and sensing devices
Optical Properties
The interaction of materials to refraction,
reflection and absorption of light.
Refraction
Refraction is the change in direction of a wave
due to a change in its velocity. This is most
commonly seen when a wave passes from one
medium to another.
A light ray will refract as it enters and leaves
glass; understanding of this concept led to the
invention of lenses and the refracting
telescope
The straw seems to be broken,
due to refraction of light as it
emerges into the air.
Absorption
The interaction of light photons with the
electronic and bonding structure of the atoms,
ions or molecules that make up the material.
The absorbance of an object quantifies how
much light is absorbed by it.
Example: an object that absorbs blue, green and
yellow light will appear red when viewed under
white light.
Application: More precise measurements at
many wavelengths allow the identification of a
substance via absorption spectroscopy

Reflection
Reflection is the change in direction of a wave front
at an interface between two dissimilar media so that
the wave front returns into the medium from which it
originated.
A mirror provides the most common model for
specular light reflection and consists of a glass sheet
in front of a metallic coating where the reflection
actually occurs. It is also possible for reflection to
occur from the surface of transparent media, such as
water or glass.

Spheres reflecting the floor and each other
Transmission
The fraction of incident light at a specified
wavelength that passes through a sample.
The sum of the fractions of the incoming incident
light reflected, absorbed, and transmitted = 1
The amount of energy absorbed by metals depends
on the electronic structure of each metal.
Examples:
For copper and gold, greater absorption of the shorter
wavelengths of blue and green but greater reflection of the
yellow, orange and red wavelengths.
For silver and aluminium, strongly reflects all parts of the
visible spectrum and thus, show a white silvery color
Optical fiber
An optical fiber is a thin (~1.25m diameter),
transparent fiber, usually made of glass or plastic, for
transmitting light.
Optical fibers are commonly used in telecommunication
systems, as well as in illumination, sensors, and imaging
optics.
These systems consist a transmitter to encode electrical
signals into light signals, optical fiber to transmit the light
signals, and a photodiode to convert the light signals
back into electrical signals.
Examples:
Optical fiber sensors for temperature and pressure
have been developed for downhole measurement in
oil wells. The fiber optic sensor is well suited for this
environment as it is functioning at temperatures too
high for semiconductor sensors.
Thermal Conductivity
The ability of a material to conduct heat; physical
constant for quantity of heat that passes through
volume of a substance in unit of time for unit
difference in temperature.
Measured by coefficient of thermal conductivity, k,
in watts per metre-kelvin, (W.m
-1
.K
-1
).
k = Heat flow rate x distance
(Area T)
Coefficient of thermal conductivity is generally high
in metals, low in ceramics and plastics
Thermal Expansion
Density of a material as a function of
temperature
In general, density decreases with increasing
temperature
Volume per unit weight increases with
increasing temperature
Thermal expansion is the name for this effect of
temperature on density
Measured by coefficient of thermal expansion, o
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (o)
Change in length per degree of temperature,
such as mm/mm/C (in/in/F)
Length ratio rather than volume ratio because
this is easier to measure and apply
Change in length for a given temperature
change is:
L
2
- L
1
= oL
1
(T
2
- T
1
)
where o = coefficient of thermal expansion; L
1

and L
2
are lengths corresponding respectively to
temperatures T
1
and T
2

Thermal Expansion in Manufacturing
Thermal expansion is used in shrink fit and
expansion fit assemblies
Part is heated to increase size or cooled to
decrease size to permit insertion into another
part
When part returns to ambient temperature, a
tightly-fitted assembly is obtained
Thermal expansion can be a problem in heat
treatment and welding due to thermal stresses
that develop in material during these processes
Effects of thermal expansion
This factor affects the substance performance in
machines or structural assemblies.

Thermal expansion causes tight fitted parts to break
and moving part to jam, in any machine. The
problem is serious if different material is used. When
a large body of glass is subject to local heating or
cooling, it breaks up due to expansion or shrinkage.

Thermal expansion also causes distortion. Thermal
properties must be considered in any engineering
constructions such as railroad, bridges, pipelines, and
buildings, especially in areas where temperatures go
to extreme values.
Thermal stress - Thermal stresses arise in materials
when they are heated or cooled. Thermal
stresses effect the operation of facilities, both
because of the large components subject to stress
and because they are affected by the way in which
the plant is operated. Result cracking, warping,
loosening of components

Thermal fatigue - The premature fracture resulting from
cyclic stresses due to temperature changes. Cause
number of surface cracks, especially in tools and dies
for casting and metal working.

Thermal shock - Ability of a material to withstand heat
and cold by subjecting it to rapid and wide changes in
temperature.
Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion resistance is the property of a metal that gives it
the ability to withstand attacks from atmospheric, chemical,
or electrochemical conditions.

In engineering materials selection, without adequate
corrosion resistance, or corrosion allowance, components
often fall short of the expected design life.

Surface treatments:
Applied coatings (Plating, painting, and the application of enamel are
the most common anti-corrosion treatments)
Reactive coatings (electrically insulating and/or chemically
impermeable coating on exposed metal surfaces)
Anodization
Corrosion
Corrosion is the deterioration of a material due to
interaction with its environment. It is the
electrochemical process in which metallic atoms leave
the metal or form compounds in the presence of water
and gases.
Typically it produces oxide(s) and/or salt(s) of the
original metal.
Metal atoms are removed from a structural element until
it fails, or oxides build up inside a pipe until it is
plugged.
All metals and alloys are subject to corrosion. Even the
noble metals, such as gold, are subject to corrosive
attack in some environments.
Tutorial
1. List applications and give reasons where the following
properties would be desirable:
a) high density, b) low density, c) high melting point, d)
low melting point, e) high thermal conductivity, f) low
thermal conductivity
2. What is piezoelectric material?
3. Difference between thermal conductivity and specific
heat?
4. Why melting point of a material an important factor in
manufacturing process?
5. Give several applications in which specific strength and
specific stiffness are important. Give some explanation.

Thank You