NUTRITION

Nutrition is the provision of

materials, usually in form of
food, to support life in
organisms.
NUTRITION
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
Synthesis complex
organic compounds
from raw, simple
inorganic substances
using light or
chemical energy
An organism obtains
energy through the
intake and digestion of
organic substances,
normally plant and
animal tissues.
AUTOTROPHIC
Chemosynthesis
Uses energy derived from oxidation of inorganic
substances
Eg~ Sulphur bacteria which oxidizes sulphur to
sulphate and Nitrosomonas sp. Which oxidizes
ammonium to nitrate
Photosynthesis
Uses energy from sunlight
Eg~ All green plants carry out photosynthesis

HETEROTROPHIC
Holozoic Nutrition
Ingests and digests food to obtain nutrients
Eg~ human, animals and insectivorous plants

Saprophytism
Obtains nutrients from dead organic matter
Eg~ bacteria and fungi like mushrooms, yeast,
and Mucor sp. (bread mould)

Paratism
Obtains nutrients from living organisms
Eg~ fleas, lice and tapeworms


Balance Diet
A balanced diet refers to a diet which contains the right amount of
all the seven classes of food in order to meet the bodys requirement.
A food pyramid shows the quantities of food group servings a person
should should consume daily.
The necessity for a balanced diet
A balanced diet can be defined as one, which contains the various groups
of food stuffs such as energy yielding foods (carbohydrates, fats), body-
building foods (protein, minerals), and protective foods (vitamins) in
correct propositions.
So that an individual is assured of obtaining the minimum requirements of
all the nutrients. The components of a balanced diet will differ according
to age, sex, physical activity, economic status, occupation and the
physiological state like pregnancy & lactation.
There are no good or bad foods or good or bad diets. All
foods contain different levels of nutrients but no single food
can provide all the vitamins and minerals our bodies need in
the right amounts.
To maintain good health and to function
efficiently our bodies needs proteins,
carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals.
Our body also needs plenty of water. We must
drink 1.5 - 2 litres of fluid daily to maintain
healthy kidneys and prevent urinary infection.

The body needs extra fluid when energy
expenditure is high and also in hot weather.
Water is required in large amounts to
regulate body processes such as digestion,
excretion, and maintenance of the body
temperature and the electrolyte balance.
The simple dietary modifications, which people can adopt using the
balanced diet chart or food guide pyramid can help to reduce the risk
of heart diseases and other diet related conditions such as diabetes
mellitus and some forms of cancer.

Factors affecting the daily energy
requirement of the Human body
1.climate ~living in colder,less humid countries would result in a
tendency to actually lose more energy to a persons
surrounding.
~this is due to the body needing more energy to regulate its
body temperature.
~those living in hot,wet areas do not use as much energy to
maintain their body temperature.
~people living in cold temperature regions would actually have
a much higher basal metabolic rate than people living in the
tropics. 2.body size ~the difference in body size also contributes to a persons
basal metabolism.
~it is estimated that people with a larger build would have a
higher basal metabolic rate than another person with a
smaller build.
3.age ~growing children usually have higher basal metabolism rates
than older people simply because of the fact they are
growing.
~for growth to take place,increased energy is also needed.
~adults tend to have a decresing basal metabolic rate
throughout their lives.
4.gender ~men normally have higher heat production than
woman of the same size and age,because men
usually have less fatty tissue in their body.
~fat healps to conserve heat,and thus,men with
less fat would lose heat a a quicker rate than
women.
~the result in men having a higher basal metabolic
rate than women.
5.health ~the function of the thyroid galand is to control
the metabolic rate by secreting a hormone known
as thyroxin.
~an underactive thyroid gland would result in
insufficient number of the hormone being
created,thereby causing a lower metabolic rate in
the person.
~an overactive thyroid,however,may produced too
many of these hormones,thereby speeding up the
metabolic rate.
6.occupation ~a person who is very active and does heavy labour
is only moderately active.
Energy value in food
samples
carbohydrates , fats and protein
supplier of energy.
the same amount of these foods
different amount of energy.
are our main

store

the amount of stored energy in food is found

by burning a known mass of
certain amount of water in a
the amount of heat released
the food to heat a
food calorimeter.
from the burning
of a fixed mass of food is equal to the amount
of stored energy in the food.
this is known as its energy value.

To explain what malnutrition is
To explain the effects of malnutrition using examples
To describe ways to reduce the chance of contracting certain health
problems due to ones diet
To describe ways to reduce the effects of certain health problem
Malnutrition and Its Effects
Malnutrition : lack of one or more of the nutrients required in the diet to
maintain good health

Can be caused by :
A reduced intake of nutrients
(undernourishment)
An inability to use absorbed nutrients
The failure to meet a required increase in
nutrient intake
Nutrient loses
3 stages to provide energy in cases of malnutrition :
The carbohydrate stores in the body are used up
The fat reserves are oxidised
Proteins are broken down. When protein levels
have been reduced to half their normal value,
death will occur

Lack of any nutrient can cause deficiency diseases
Nutrients Effects of
deficiency
Characteristics
Proteins Kwashiorkor Stomach bloated, growth of
body and brain retarded,
no appetite for food, weak
body
Vitamin A Night blindness
Xerophthalmia
poor night vision
cornea dry & opaque
Vitamin B
1
Beri-beri Swollen legs & ankles,
numbness in hands,
muscular pain & cramps,
fatigue, loss of appetite
Vitamin B
3
Pellagra Dermatitis (skin becomes
red & inflamed), diarrhoea
& mental disorder
Vitamin B12
Iron
Anaemia Lack of RBC or haemoglobin
to transport oxygen
Vitamin C Scurvy Bleeding gums, bruise skin,
painful & swollen joints,
weakness
Vitamin D
Calcium
Rickets
Osteoporosis
Stunted growth of bones &
teeth, weak bones
Brittle bones which easily
broken
Iodine Goitre
Cretinism
Enlarge thyroid glands
Physical & mental growth
retarded
Sodium Muscular cramps Sudden & painful contraction
of muscles
Effects of Excessive Intake of
Certain Nutrients on Health
Nutrient Effects Characteristics
Carbohydrates
(sugar)
Obesity which may lead
to high blood pressure,
diabetes mellitus, heart
diseases
Dental caries
Body weight is more than
20% of the suitable body
weight for a particular height
Tooth decay due to the
destruction of the teeths
enamel by acids which are
produced by bacteria from
carbohydrate
Lipids Atherosclerosis (as a result
of saturated animal fats)
The narrowing & hardening
of arteries
Proteins Gout
Stones in the kidney which
can damage the kidney
Excessive uric acid
deposits on the joints
causing joint pain
Uric acid crystalises &
forms stones in the
kidney
Vitamin A Liver damage The liver fails to function
because liver cells die &
fibrous tissues form in the
liver
Sodium High blood pressure
Kidney damage
Fatigue, headache, can
cause bleeding in the
brain (stroke) & heart
failure
Kidneys are overloaded
with the task of removing
excess salt
Calcium Atherosclerosis Calcium deposits on
the inner walls of
arteries causing the
arteries to harden &
lose their elasticity
DIET-RELATED DISEASES
HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE
Excessive intake of food that is rich in saturated fat, cholesterol & calcium leads to
atherosclerosis & high blood pressure.

The saturated fats, cholesterol & calcium are deposited on the inner walls of arteries. The
lumen become smaller & the walls of the arteries harden & lose their elasticity. Blood flow
is reduced. the heart pump faster to produce a higher pressure
Also can cause by excessive intake of salts, tea & coffee which can increase the
rate of heart beat, thus increasing the blood pressure.

Ways to reduce the risk of HBP :
Reduce the intake of food which are rich in saturated fats & cholesterol
Exercise frequently
Reduce the intake of salts in food, as well as tea & coffee
Do not smoke
Have enough rest
DIABETES MELLITUS
Caused by excessive glucose in the blood & its subsequent
excretion in the urine

Excessive intake of food rich in sugar (carbohydrates) can
cause diabetes mellitus

Obesity can also lead to DM

The risk of DM can be reduced by :
Reduce the intake of food rich in sugar
Exercise frequently
DIET-RELATED DISEASE
OSTEOPOROSIS
Due to the lack of calcium, phosphorus & vitamin D in the
diet of an adult
Low density of the bone mass & the bones become thin &
brittle, easily broken
The risk of contracting osteoporosis can be reduced in the
following ways :
Intake of food rich in calcium, phosphorus & vitamin D
Exercise frequently
Kwashiokor
1. Explain what is malnutrition.
2. Explain the effects of malnutrition
using examples.
3. Describe ways to reduce the effects of
certain health problems.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
To state the substances required by cells to
carry out metabolic processes;
To list the complex substances that need to
be digested;
To explain the necessity for digestion of
complex substances;
To draw and label the human digestive
system;
To state and describe the functions of the
digestive juices and substances that aid the
process of digestion.
Food such as carbohydrates, proteins &
lipids consist of large & complex organic
compounds.
Need to be broken down into simple
substance that can be absorbed by the cells
in the body
The process of breaking down large &
complex substances is called digestion
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Consist of the alimentary canal & digestive glands
Alimentary canal : oral cavity, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (ascending
colon, transverse colon, descending colon, rectum)
Digestive glands : organs/tissues which secrete digestive juices that aid in the process of digestion
Digestive juices : saliva, gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice & intestinal juice
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
DIGESTIVE
JUICE
FUNCTIONS
SALIVA
Soften food
Digests cooked starch

GASTRIC JUICE
Kills microorganisms
Contains enzymes which digest
proteins
Provide an acidic medium needed by
the enzymes

BILE
Emulsifies lipids, breaking them into
tiny droplets suspended in water
Increase the surface area for the
action of enzymes
DIGESTIVE JUICE FUNCTIONS
PANCREATIC
JUICE
Contain enzymes which
digest cooked starch, proteins
& lipids
INTESTINAL
JUICE
Contains enzymes which
complete the digestion of
proteins & dissaccharides
The Digestion of Carbohydrates, Proteins & Lipids in Humans
In the oral cavity & oesophagus
Food chewed by the teeth small pieces
: increases the surface area of food for
digestive enzymes to work on later
3 pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva
into the oral cavity (parotid glands,
sublingual glands, submaxillary glands)
Saliva softens food (easier to swallow)
Saliva contain enzyme (ptyalin/salivary amylase)
able to hydrolyse cooked starch into maltose
The tongue moves the food in the oral cavity while
it is being chewed, rolling it into a round mass
called bolus.
The tongue is then raised to swallow the food into
the oesophagus.
Food is moved down the oesophagus by peristalsis
(rhythmic contraction & relaxation of the alimentary tube)
The cardiac sphincter (a ring of muscles which guard the
opening of the stomach) relaxes, food enters the stomach
In the Stomach
The stomach wall contains gastric glands secrete gastric juice (contain
HCl acid, rennin & pepsin)

HCl acid (pH 1),kills m/organisms which may be present in food, provides a
suitable medium for action of rennin & pepsin (active in acidic condition)
Rennin coagulates milk by converting caseinogen
(soluble milk protein) into casein (insoluble milk
protein)
Pepsin hydrolyses proteins into peptones
(fragments of protein molecule, one or more coiled
polypeptides) & polypeptides.

Protein + water peptones + polypeptides

The stomach contracts & relaxes rhythmically
(peristalsis), helps to break up food physically,
helps to mix food with enzymes
pepsin
Food digested in the stomach for about 4 hours.

Partially digested food leaves the stomach, it is semi-fluid
(chyme)

Chymes enters the duodenum when the pyloric sphincter
of stomach relaxes
Duodenum receive bile from
the gall bladder & pancreatic
juice from the pancreas
Bile : synthesised in the liver
stored in the gall bladder
channeled through the bile
duct into the duodenum
when needed
Bile contains bile salt - not
contain any enzymes
Function in emulsifying
lipids, breaking lipids into tiny
droplets which are
suspended in water to
increase the surface area
that can be acted by
enzymes
Reducing the surface tension of water so that lipids
no longer float on top of water.

Pancreatic juice is synthesised by pancreas &
channeled to the duodenum via pancreatic duct.

Pancreatic juice : amylase, trypsin, lipase
Pancreatic juice is alkaline. Amylase, trypsin & lipase are only active in
an alkaline medium

Cooked starch + water maltose

Peptones & + polypeptides + water peptides

Fats (or oils) + water fatty acids + glycerol
amylase
lipase
trypsin
Throughout the wall of the
small intestine there are
intestinal glands (produce
intestinal juice - alkaline)
Contains erepsin,
maltase, sucrase &
lactase

Peptides + water
amino acids
Erepsin/
peptidase
Maltose + water
glucose

Sucrose + water
glucose + fructose

Lactose + water
glucose + galactose
maltase
sucrase
lactase
LOCATION DIGESTIVE
JUICE
DIGESTIVE
GLAND
ENZYMES BIOCHEMICAL REACTION
Oral cavity Saliva Salivary
gland
Salivary
amylase/
ptyalin
Cooked starch + water maltose


Stomach
Gastric juice Gastric gland Rennin Caseinogens + water casein
Pepsin Protein + water peptones + polypeptides
HCl acid Kill pathogens in food
Prepared acidic medium for enzyme reaction
Liver Bile salt liver - Emulsifies fats


Pancreas


Pancreas
juice


Pancreas
Amylase Cooked starch + water maltose

Trypsin Peptones & polypeptides + water peptides
Lipase Fats + water fatty acid + glycerol



Small
intestine



Intestinal juice



Intestinal
glands
Maltase Maltose + water glucose
Lactase Lactose+ water glucose+ galactose
Sucrase Sucrose+ water Glucose + fructose
Erepsin/
peptidase
Peptides + water amino acid
Lipase Fats + water fatty acids + glycerol
The abomasum is the true stomach and is the
only chamber which secretes gastric juice for
digestion of other food substance.
1. List the complex substances that
need to be digested.
2. Explain the necessary for
digestion of complex substances.
3. Explain the digestion of
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.

Ruminants
- Ex: cows, goats

- Stomach: 4 chambers- rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum

- Adaptation: enables them to carry out rumination- process of
regurgitating and rechewing food.

- Rumen and reticulum- hv large communities of bacteria, protozoa
that produce cellulase
DIGESTION OF CELLULOSE IN RUMINANTS
AND RODENTS



Partially chewed food- passed to the rumen, the largest
compartment of stomach.
Cellulose- broken down by symbiotic microorganisms that produce
cellulase.
Part of breakdown products- absorbed by bacteria, the rest by cow
As the food enter reticulum- cellulose undergo further hydrolysis.
The content- called the cud, regurgitated bit by bit into the
mouth to be chewed.
Process- helps soften, break down cellulose, making it more
accessible to further microbial action
The cud- reswallowed, moved to the omasum. Here, large
particles of food are broken down into smaller pieces by peristalsis.
Water- removed from the cud
Finally, food particles- move into abomasum, the true stomach of
the cow. Gastric juice containing digestive enzymes- complete
the digestion of proteins and other food substances. Then- the food
passes through small intestine to be digested, absorbed in normal
way.


Rodents
- rat, rabbit

- Caecum and appendix- enlarged to store the cellulose-digesting
bacteria.

- Breakdown products- pass through the alimentary canal of rabbit
twice

- Faeces in the first batch- usually produced at night: eaten again

- Enable them to absorb the products of bacterial breakdown

- Second batch- faeces drier, harder

- Process- allow rabbits to recover the nutrients initially lost with faeces
Incomplete digestion
Lactose intolerance
Gallstone
PROBLEMS RELATED WITH FOOD DIGESTION


Small intestine- wall is covered with epithelial cells,
specialised to complete the digestion process

Length- about 6m, the longest section of alimentary canal.

Intestinal lining- folded, covered entirely by tiny, finger-like
projections: villi.

Epithelial cells of a villus- hv a fringe of microscopic projections :
microvilli.





ADAPTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Villi

- Numerous in number- increases the internal surface area of the ileum for
absorption

- Thin-walled (one-cell thick)- digested food
will be absorbed rapidly

- Contain network of blood capillaries-
for absorption and efficient transport
of digested food

- Contain special features: lacteals for
absorbing fatty acids and glycerol





- End products of digestion: glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol-
absorbed from small intestine into the bloodstream/ lymphatic system

- i) Glucose, amino acids
- move from lumen into the epithelial cells (facilitated diffusion)

- ii) Remaining nutrients
- - move across epithelial lining and (active transport)

- From epithelial cells, they are absorbed directly into the bloodstream through
blood capillaries in the villi

- - blood capillaries- converge into hepatic portal vein- leads to the liver

- Here, nutrients are transported to all parts of our body
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD
Cont..

- iii) Water
- Moves from the lumen into the epithelial cells , the into the blood
capillaries (osmosis)

- iv) Water-soluble vitamin
- Vit.B and C diffuse into the epithelial cells and then into the blood
capillaries.
- v) Fatty acids and glycerol, fat-soluble vitamins

- FA and glycerol enter the epithelial cells, they recombine to form tiny
droplets of lipid.

- From Epithelial cells, lipid droplets move into to the lacteals

- Fat-soluble vitamins absorbed into the lacteals to be transported together
with lipids.

- Fluid carrying lipids and fat-soluble vitamins enter the lymphatic system
forms a network

- The contents- drained into right
lymphatic duct and
thoracic cavity before emptied
into the bloodstream through the
subclavian vein.


Secretes bile

- Bile: a mixture of bile pigments and bile salts delivered to
duodenum

- Do not contain enzymes

- Bile salts disperse the lipid droplets present in chyme into an
emulsion of tiny droplets- increase the surface area for lipase
action

- Bile: stored in gallbladder.
FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER
Synthesises clotting agents
- fibrinogen, prothrombin, other plasma proteins

Regulation of blood glucose concentration
- Removes glucose from the blood by converting it into glycogen

Detoxification
- Detoxifies blood by removing and metabolising toxic substances

Storage of nutrients
- Excess glucose- converted into fats, stored in other parts of body

- Stores fat-soluble vitamins- A, D, E,
K, vitamin B12, iron from
haemoglobin of disintegrated RBC.
Amino acids

- Pass through the liver before reach the blood circulatory system

- Liver- synthesises plasma proteins from amino acids: function- blood
clotting and osmoregulation

- Short supply of glucose and glycogen- liver converts amino acids into
glucose

- Excess amino acids- broken down through deamination process:
urea is produced, transported to the kidneys to be secreted.

ASSIMILATION IN THE LIVER
Glucose

- Used for respiration

- Excess of nitrogen will be converted into glycogen, stored in the liver

- Blood sugar level falls- glycogen will be converted into glucose

- Glycogen stored in the
- liver full- excess glucose
- is converted into lipids by
- the liver

Lipids
- Enter the heart through the subclavian
- veins: transported in the bloodstream
- to body cells.


Amino acids

- used for synthesis of new protoplasm and the repair of damaged
tissues.

- Building blocks for the synthesis of enzymes and hormones

- Synthesis of proteins of plasma
membrane
ASSIMILATION IN THE CELLS
Glucose

Oxidised to release energy during cellular respiration: required
for various chemical processes, ex: muscle contractions, synthesis
of proteins

Excess glucose- stored as glycogen in the muscle

Glycogen-
insoluble in water



Lipids

- Fats- stored around organs: act as cushions to protect the organs

- Excess fat- stored in the adipose tissue underneath the skin to
reserve energy

- Lacks of glucose- fats
are oxidised to release
energy

FORMATION OF FAECES
Colon

- Intestinal contents: mixture of water, undigested food substances,
dead cells, dead bacteria, indigestible fibre- enter colon

- Movement of undigested materials- slow, helped by peristalsis

- Reabsorbs almost 90% of water and minerals into bloodstream-
results in the formation of faeces

- Faeces: contain indigestible residue, dead cells shed from intestinal
lining, bile pigments, toxic substances- eliminated from the body

- Wall of colon- secretes mucus which
- helps to bind the faeces, lubricates
- the movement of faeces along the colon






Rectum

- After 12-24 hours, faeces pass through the rectum: for
temp.storage

- More water is absorbed, undigested residue- hardens to
form faeces.

- As the faeces accumulate
pressure , expel faeces.
Elimination of faeces

Controlled by muscles around the anus

When the rectum is full,
muscles at the rectal wall-
contract to expel the faeces
via anus


PROCESS OF DEFAECATION
Microorganisms in the colon

Escherichia coli

- Lives symbiotically in the intestines- digesting food substances

- Synthesises vit.B and K as by-products in metabolism

- Secrete antibiotics inhibit the growth of harmful microorganisms: ex, Lactobacillus
acidophilus

- Stable env.- maintained in the alimentary canal.

- Overuse of antibiotics- reduce the population
of microorganisms- affect the digestion and
absorption of nutrients.
Constipation

- Faeces moving to slow

- Greater amount of water is
reabsorbed in the colon-
hardens the faeces

- Painful defaecation

- Avoid- by drinking a lot of water, taking sufficient amount of water: will softens the
fibres, stimulates muscles to push out the residue

- Chronic constipation- associated with haemorrhoids- can lead to colon cancer

PROBLEMS RELATED TO DEFAECATION

Nutritional labels- provide complete info: total calories per srving, contents of
various nutrients

Considerations on:
- Nutritional contents of food
- Freshness of food (expiry date)
- Presence of food additives,
ex: colourings, flavourings,
preservatives

- Help to reduce health
problems related to poor
eating habits
NUTRIENT CONTENT IN FOOD


Good eating habits:

- Taking meals at the appropriate time

- Refraining from overeating or eating too little during a meal

- Eating a balanced diet

- Eating sufficient amounts of fibre- fruits and vegetables

- Drinking - 2-3 litres of water daily : flush out toxins

- Avoid excessive fatty food, food rich in sugar or high in sodium
Gastritis

- Condition: epithelial lining of the stomach becomes inflamed.

- Stomach lining- covered with a layer of mucus which protects it
from HCl and digestive enzymes

- Feels hungry: gastric juice is secreted into the lumen

- Acidic gastric juice acting on epithelial lining of stomach wall- if
food is not taken at regular time.

- The breach in the stomach lining develops into hole- gastric ulcer
results.


HEALTH PROBLEMS RELATED TO EATING HABITS
Cont,.

- Inflammation and damage to the stomach lining can also be caused
by:

i) excessive alcohol consumption and stress

ii) taking aspirins, other pain relievers regularly.

- Presence of Helicobacter pylori- also can cause ulcers

- Infection weakens mucosal barrier, damages mucus layer, causing
the stomach to be exposed to the action of acid and digestive
enzymes

- Treatment of most gastritis: antacids (sodium bicarbonate and
magnesium hydroxide) neutralise HCl in gastric juice.
Obesity

- Body weight exceeds 20% the normal weight (accord.to height)

- Excessive storage of energy in the form of fat.

- Obese person- predisposed to:
i) cardiovascular disease
ii) hypertension
iii) diabetes mellitus

- Factors lead to obesity:
Eating excessively
Eating too much carbohydrates and fat
Lack of exercise

- Overcome by practising a balanced diet, eating not more than what is required by our
body.




Aneroxia nervosa

- Psychological disorder characterised by intentionally depriving oneself of food to achieve a
severe loss in body weight

- People with AN- experience an intense fear of gaining weight and distorted body image

- Occurs among female adults and teenagers

- Lose both fat and muscle lead to disruption of the functions of the functions of the heart,
endocrine system and reproductive system.

- Early treatment : through nutrition and gradual restoration of body mass can correct some
of the physical symptoms

- Counselling- needed to help patients to correct any distorted belief, overcome their
emotional distress

Bulimia

- Victims of bulimia- have normal body mass.

- Characterised by sequences of excessive food intake and purging to counteract the effects of the binge.

- Victims- consume huge amounts of food in a short period of time, feel out of control, unable to stop eating during a
binge.

- They feel guilty, ashamed, disgusted or depressed after that.

- Followed by purging through self-induced vomiting or misuse of laxative or diuretics.

- Repeated purging- injury to digestive tract, cause an imbalance of mineral salts in the blood.

- Victims experience dehydration, irregular periods or stop completely.

- Symptoms associated with bulimia: malnutrition, hormonal imbalance, increased risk of diseases such as influenza,
kidney and cardiovascular problems and liver disease

- Overcome by observing the patient to ensure that the person eats correctly, obtain counselling and medication.






Bye-Bye!! See you
next time. Dont
forget to study!

PLANTS
- Mineral nutrients- essential chemical elements required by plants to
complete their life cycle, achieve optimal growth and development

- Macronutrients- elements required by plants in relatively large
amounts: C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S

- C, H,O- easily obtained
from CO2 (atmosphere),
water (soil).
THE IMPORTANCE OF MACRONUTRIENTS AND
MICRONUTRIENTS
Micronutrients- chemicals that are required in relatively
small amounts: B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn

Knops solution- culture solution used to determine
which elements are required for normal growth
Elements
Calcium nitrate (Ca(No
3
)
2
) 0.8g
Potassium nitrate (KNO
3
) 0.2g
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH
2
PO
4
) 0.2g
Magnesium sulphate (MgSO
4
) 0.2g
Ferum (III) phosphate (FeSO
4
) trace
Distilled water 1000 cm
3
Effects of a lack of a certain element on plant- carried out
by eliminating it from Knops solution.

Macronutrients and micronutrients involved in the
synthesis of chemical substances essential for the
healthy growth of plants.

Absence of one or more nutrients- lead to mineral
deficiency.
Macronutrients Functions Effects of deficiency
Nitrogen -Synthesis of proteins,
nucleic acids, chlorophyll
and enzymes for
photosynthesis and
respiration
- rapid stem, leaf growth
-Increases seed and fruit
yields
-Stunted growth
-Chlorosis: the synthesis
of chlorophyll is
inhibited, results in pale
yellow
leaves
Phosphorus -Synthesis of nucleic acids,
ATP, phospholipids of
plasma membrane
-Acts as coenzyme in
photosynthesis and
respiration
- Poor root growth
- Formation of dull, dark
green leaves
- Red or purple spots on
old leaves

Potassium -Protein synthesis
-Carbohydrate metabolism
-Cofactor for many
enzymes
-Maintain turgidity in plants
-Reduced protein
synthesis
-Yellow-edged leaves
-Premature death of
plants

Macronutrients Functions Effects of deficiency
Calcium -Major constituent of the
middle lamella of cell walls
- Formation of spindle fibres
during cell division
-Stunted growth
-Leaves become
distorted and cupped
-Areas between leaves
veins become yellow
Magnesium -Main structural component
of chlorophyll
-Activates many plant
enzymes
-Involve in carbohydrate
metabolism
-Yellowing in the regions
between the veins of
mature leaves
-Red spots on leaf
surfaces, leaves become
cupped

Sulphur -Component of certain
amino acids
- constituent of vitamin B
and some coenzyme
-General yellowing of the
affected leaves or the
entire plant

Micronutrients Functions Effects of deficiency
Boron -Aids in Calcium ion uptake by
roots and translocation of sugar
-Involved in carbohydrate
metabolism.
- Aids in the germination of
pollen grains
- required for normal mitotic
cell division in the meristems
-Acts as cofactor for chlorophyll
synthesis
- Death of terminal bud
- Abnormal plant growth
- Leaves become thick,
curled and brittle
Copper - An important component of
enzymes
-Involved in nitrogen
metabolism and photosynthesis
-Important for reproductive
growth and flower formation in
plants
-Death of young shoot tips
- Brown spots appear on
terminal leaves
- plants are stunted

Iron - A cofactor in the synthesis of
chlorophyll
-Essential for young growing
plants
- Yellowing of young leaves

Micronutrients Functions Effects of deficiency
Manganese - An activator of enzymes in
photosynthesis, respiration,
nitrogen metabolism
- A network of green
veins on a light green
background
- Brown or grey spots
between the veins
Molybdenum - Involved in nitrogen
fixation
-Reduction of nitrates
during protein synthesis
- Chlorosis in the area
between the veins of
mature leaves
-Pale green leaves
- Reduction in crop
yields
Zinc - Formation of leaves
- Synthesis of auxin
- Acts as a cofactor in
carbohydrate metabolism
- Mottled leaves with
irregular areas of chlorosis
- Retarded growth
Leaves:

- main photosynthetic organs in a plant

- Grow overlap each other: leaf mosaic.


- Consists of a flat, thin
lamina- joined to the stem
by petiole

- Petiole- holds the leaves-
receive the max.amount of
sunlight.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Lamina:

- broad, flattened shape has a large surface to trap sunlight

- Thin: light can penetrate, allows the diffusion of gases (photosynthesis)

Veins:

- Contain xylem and phloem tissues

- Xylem- transports H2O absorbed by the roots to the leaf

- Phloem- transports products of photosynthesis away from the leaf

LEAF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Vein
Cuticle

- Waterproof to help prevent excessive water loss

- Transparent to allow light to penetrate the leaf


Upper epidermis

- Single layer, thin, transparent- allows light
to penetrate the leaf and reach the light-
trapping chloroplasts inside

- Sunlight- penetrate easily because the
epidermal cells- do not contain
chloroplasts

Vascular bundle

- Xylem : transports mineral ions and water
from the roots to the leaf

- Phloem : transports products of
photosynthesis away from the leaf
Palisade mesophyll

- cells- cylindrical, packed tightly together in an upright arrangement-
beneath upper epidermis

- Allows the cells to receive the max. amount of light.

- Have a high density of chloroplasts

- Most active cells in photosynthesis

- Chloroplasts in these cells
- able to move, arrange
themselves to carry out
max. absorption of sunlight

- Cell walls- coated with a film of
water: CO2 can dissolve in the
film of water before diffusing into
the cells
Spongy mesophyll

- Cells: irregular shape- increases the internal surface area for gaseous exchange

- Contain chloroplasts

- Cells- loosely arranged, between of them: air spaces that connect mesophyll to the stomata

- Large air spaces- diffusion of H2O and CO2 through the interior of the leaf to the palisade
cells

- Cell walls- coated with a film of water

- Moist surfaces: allow the gaseous exchange occur efficiently
Lower epidermis

- Does not contain chloroplasts, excpt.for guard cells

- Each stoma: flanked by 2 guard cells

- Guard cells- enable the opening and closing of stomata

- Stomata- support photosynthesis by allowing the exchange of gases between
the inside and surroundings of the leaf

- CO2 from the atmosphere diffuses into the leaf through the stomata and
oxygen diffuses out of the leaf through the same route.


ADAPTATION OF PLANTS FROM DIFFERENT
HABITATS TO CARRY OUT PHOTOSYNTHESIS
HABITAT DISTRIBUTION OF
STOMATA
DISTRIBUTION OF
CHLOROPLASTS
Land plants- lives
in tropical areas.
Ex: Hibiscus
- Lower epidermis of the leaf-
allow for maximum Co2
absorption
- upper epidermis: does not hv
many stomata. Reason: direct
expose to the sunlight will
cause water loss and
evaporation
- Mostly found in palisade
mesophyll cells and spongy
mesophyll cells.

- allows maximum
absorption of sunlight for
photosynthesis
Floating plants:
i) Rooted with
floating leaves
ii) Not rooted in
the sediment,
just float on
the surface
- upper epidermis- covered by
a thick, waxy cuticle to repel
water and keep the stomata
open
- hv air-filled internal cavities
-Upper epidermis-
maximise the absorption of
sunlight
- weak stems- support large
floating leaves that allow
the max.absorption of
sunlight

HABITAT DISTRIBUTION OF
STOMATA
DISTRIBUTION OF
CHLOROPLASTS
- Desert plants,
ex: cactus
-leaves- few stomata: help to
prevent excessive loss of water
through transpiration
-Stomata- normally located in
the grooves along the stem
- ex: Dessert Trumpet:
- open stomata at night
- absorb and store CO2 during
the night
- CO2- used during the day
when the stomata are forced to
close- reduced the loss of water
- Thorns and stems:
because cacti have reduced
leaves, mostly modified to
become thorns
- Aquatic plants
that are
submerged. Ex:
Hydrilla sp.
- No stomata on the leaves
- air-filled cavities extend
throughout the leaves and
stems of aquatic plants,
providing an internal atm.- for
gaseous exchange
- all over the surface of the
plant- to maximise the
absorption of sunlight
- reason: low light intensity
of sunlight in the water
Light reaction: occur only in the presence of light

Dark reaction: occur both when there is light and when is dark.

Occurs mainly in chloroplasts

Contains grana:
- hv light-trapping pigment chlorophyll.
- Embedded in a gel-like matrix :
stroma

Stroma:
- Contain enzymes responsible for
the dark reaction
- Contain starch grains- act as
temporary storage place for the products
of photosynthesis
THE MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

LIGHT REACTION
Occurs in the grana
Chlorophyll captures light energy which excites the electron of chlorophyll
molecules to higher energy level
In the excited state, the electrons leave the chlorophyll molecules
Light energy- also used to split water molecules into H ions and OH ions=
photolysis of water

24H
2
O 24H
+
+ 24OH
-
H ions then combine with electrons released by chlorophyll to form H atoms

24H + 24e 24H
Energy from the exited electron- used to form ATP
Each OH ion loses an electron to form OH group, and the electron- received
by the chlorophyll
24OH
-
24OH + 24e
OH group then combine to form water and gaseous oxygen released into
the atmosphere, used for cellular respiration
ATP molecules- provide energy, hydrogen atoms provide reducing power for
the dark reaction
light
chlorophyll


DARK REACTION
Occurs in the stroma
Also known as Calvin cycle, light independent
H atoms are used to fix CO2 in a series of reaction catalysed by
photosynthetic enzymes
Overall reaction: results in the reduction of CO2 into glucose
6CO
2
+ 24H 6(CH
2
O) + 6H
2
O
Six units of CH2O combine to form one molecule of glucose

6(CH
2
O) C
6
H
12
O
6
Glucose monomers- undergo condensation to form starch, temporary stored
as starch grains in chloroplasts
Overall chemical equations:

6H
2
O + 6CO
2
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2

light
chlorophyll
Light intensity

- Light- important for the photolysis of water

- CO2 and temperature constant, rate of photosynthesis light
intensity, up to certain point

THE FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Concentration of carbon dioxide

- Needed in dark reaction- as a raw material to synthesise glucose

- Concentration of CO2 in the atm.varies between 0.03%-0.04%.

- No other limiting factors- an increase in the conc.of CO2 results in an increase in the
rate of photosynthesis

- Light intensity- the rate of photosynthesis levels off at the saturation point

- CO2 keep increasing, rate of photosynthesis will not increase further because light
intensity becomes limiting factor



30C at high light intensity
30C at low light intensity
Water

- Needed in small amount

- Water not supplied- wilting occurs= closing of stomata,
prevents the diffusion of CO2 into the leaves

- Results: rate of photosynthesis decreases as the lower
concentration of CO2 becomes the limiting factor

Temperature

- In dark reaction- photosynthesis is catalysed by photosynthetic enzymes

- Changes in temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis

- An increase of 10C in the surrounding temperature- double the rate of
photosynthesis

- Optimum temperature in plants- varies.
-
- Most plants: between 25C and 30C

- Temperature too high- photosynthetic enzymes denatured, photosynthesis stops.




- Causes: light intensity and temperature

- Rate of photosynthesis is high: light intensity high,
temperature high midday

- Extremely high temperature and water shortage- stomata
will close= rate of photosynthesis will decrease although
the light intensity is high
THE DIFFERENCE IN THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN
PLANTS THROUGHOUT THE DAY
Countries with 4 seasons- light intensity and temperature is not
constant.

Summer- Highest rate of photosynthesis

Autumn- low, because the trees shed their leaves

Winter- days are shorter, temperature fall way below 0C-
photosynthesis ceases.
INCREASING THE PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS BASED ON
THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS















- Light intensity, temperature, carbon dioxide concentration- controlled
artificially
Green plants can convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy stored
within organic molecules.

Organic molecules- provide fuel for other organisms (herbivores)

Provide oxygen for human and animals-respiration

Coal- fossil fuel formed from trees over thousands of years. Energy in the coal-
is the energy derived from sunlight





THE IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
i) Consuming ulam
- Eaten raw

- Ex;pegaga (Centella asiatica), kacang botor, petai (Parkia
speciosa)

- Rich in vitamins, mineral ions,
fibre

- Some- used in the preparation
of herbal medicines and drinks
THE EFFORTS BY VARIOUS AGENCIES TO
DIVERSIFY FOOD PRODUCTION
ii) Consuming various sources of proteins

- Main sources: chicken, fish, meat

- Diversify by: eating rabbit, quail, ostrich meat, freshwater fish,
prawns

- Rabbit: rich in protein, low in fat and cholesterol

- Ostrich: nutritious, rich in protein, low in fat

- Freshwater fish: ex; Talapia, jelawat, haruan- low in cholesterol


iii) Consuming mushrooms

- Ex: button, abalone, shittake
mushrooms

- High nutrient content

- Shittake- increase bodys immunity

- Low in calories, no cholesterol, free of fat
and sodium
i) Direct seeding

- Seeds are sown directly into the soil by using special machines

- Seeds- covered with soil- being sown

- Do not involve the transplanting of seedlings- results in less damage to the roots

- Faster growth- increases crop yields

- Less water needed to irrigate the plants

- Used widely for paddys planting- higher
yields.

METHODS USED TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY
AND QUANTITY OF FOOD PRODUCTION
ii) Hydroponics

- Commercial technique for growing certain crops in
culture solutions

- Roots- immersed in a solution which contains all
the macronutrients and micronutrients in correct
proportions

- The culture solution is aerated to provide sufficient
oxygen for respiration












The nutrient solution is pumped into the container for a
given period of time.

The growing medium absorbs the nutrient solution, and
the nutrient solution is the allowed to drain away
iii) Aeroponics

- Modified technique of hydroponics

- Plants- placed in holes through a panel (plastic or polystyrene)

- Grown with the roots suspended in mid-air within an enclosed growing chamber
beneath the panel.

- The roots- sprayed with a mist of nutrient solutions from spraying nozzles at short
intervals.

- Roots absorb more oxygen in between the periods of spraying

- Faster growth- culture solutions provide nutrients in a form that can be absorbed by
the roots easily.

- Cultivation of spinach, chillies, tomatoes

- Produce food plants if : lack of soil, or unsuitable for
cultivation

- Used in a large scale

- Hydroponics- space saving, can be used by people living in
flats or apartments

- Able to provide exact nutrients needed by plants

- Light intensity, temperature, and pH can be controlled
maximum growth

- Can be grown all year round



ADVANTAGES OF HYDROPONICS AND
AEROPONICS
- Do not involve cultivation- medium already provides sufficient air, moisture, nutrient
retention

- Reduce labour costs.

- Produce twice the yields

- The growth of plants- uniform because irrigation and nutrient supply are constant

- The risk of plants getting infected- reduced because the growing medium and
nutrient solutions are sterile.

- Does not require the use of pesticides and herbicides- because have been sterilised.

- Weeding- not required

iii) Selective breeding

- Different plant species with certain beneficial characteristics- selectively breed.

- Resulting varieties- inherit beneficial characteristics of both plants

- Plants may have:
Increased nutritional value
Shorter maturity time
Higher yields
Greater resistance to climate changes and diseases
Better adaptations to local environmental conditions

Ex: Tenera sp. (palm oil)
- Do not drop off easily from the bunch
- Less fibre
- More oil content


iv) Animal breeding

- Cross breeding between two different types of animals

- To enhance the yields of milk, meat, etc.

- Breed between Friesian cow and a Sahiwal bull=Mafriwal

- Breed for its milk

- Low content of fat

v)Tissue culture

- Entire plant can be regenerated from the cells or tissues of a parent
plant

- Tissue- grown in a sterile medium or culture
solution which contains the necessary nutrients
and growth hormones

- Plantlets- transplanted into nurseries

Advantages:
enables commercial propagation of clones which
have all the useful characteristics of the parent
plants, or which have undergone the manipulation
via genetic engineering

Increase the agricultural yield of many crop plants-
pineapples, papaya, starfruits
vi) Genetic engineering

- Increase the quality and quantity of food production

- Alteration of an organisms characteristics by changing the genetic composition

- Transfer of DNA segment carries the genetic information or beneficial genes from one
organism to another

- Ex: genes from plants can be inserted into DNA of animal cells

- GMO trangenic organism

- Development- enable transgenic crop plants: wheat, paddy, tomatoes, legumes, soya
beans, and potatoes can be cultivated commercially: contain genes from other organisms
to enhance their growth or nutritional properties




Ex: Golden rice

- Transgenic rice in which the gene that codes for the
synthesis of beta-carotene has been transferred from
daffodil plant.

- Result: golden rice has a higher content of beta-carotene
, orange in
colour


vii) Proper soil management

- Regular addition of organic and inorganic fertilisers to return
nutrients to the soil

- Ploughing to increase aeration in the soil

- Practising crop rotation- to maintain and improve soil fertility and
prevent the build-up of pests peculiar to any crop species

- Reducing soil erosion and leaching of nutrients
from the soil.

- Addition of organic matter promotes humus
formation and improve soil structure
viii) Biological control

- Use natural predators to control the pests
- Examples:
- Owls and snakes use to control rat
population on oil palm plantation
- Population of prickly pear cactus-
controlled by introducing cactus moth
- Beneficial- if it can reduce the use of
chemicals (pesticides) , environment
friendly
activities involved in the preparation of food which ensure that food is safe

Purpose: preserve food by overcoming the factors that cause food spoilage

Food spoilage caused by:

- The action of microorganisms on food, esp. decomposing bacteria and fungi

- The oxidation of food due
to oxygen reacting with
enzymes and chemicals released
by the cells
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN FOOD
PROCESSING
Food have to be processed to:

i) Extend their lifespan so that they can be stored for
future use

i) To avoid wastage

ii) To prevent the spread of diseases due to contamination of food,
that can cause food poisoning

iii) To ensure there will be a continuous supply of food for the
population

iv) To increase the commercial value

v) To prevent bacterial and fungal decay

vi) Withstand long period of transportation and storage

vii) Food products can be supplied to the local/global market all
year round

viii) To diversify the uses of food substances. Ex: milk- cheese,
yogurt,etc.


Additives- preservatives, flavourings,
colourings
- some- have bad side effects
A) Food Processing

i) Cooking

Method:
- cooking at high temperatures or boiling
for at least 5 minutes

Principles:
- Heating food to high temperature can kill microorganisms and denature the
enzymes that cause the breakdown of food

Examples: meat, vegetables, fish

RELATING THE FOOD PROCESSING METHODS
WITH FACTORS CAUSING FOOD SPOILAGE
ii) Fermentation process

Method:
- Yeast is added to fruit juices or other food substances

Principles:
- produce ethanol which at high concentrations, stops the
activity of bacteria
- Ethanol produced- great commercial value

Examples;
- Fruit juices, traditional food- tapai
(from glutinous rice/tapioca)

iii) Drying

Method:
- Drying under the hot sun, in hot air or in the oven

Principle:
- Drying removes water from food: prevents microorganisms from
growing as microorganisms cannot live without water

- Enzyme activity- stopped

- UV rays- kill bacteria and harmful microorganisms
B) Preservation

i) Pickling food

Method:
- Food is soaked in an acidic solution. Ex: vinegar

Principle:
- Most organisms cannot live in low pH conditions

Examples:
- Chillies, ginger, onions, mangoes
papayas


ii) Treating food with salt or sugar

Method:
- Food is soaked in a concentrated salt solution or boiled with
sugar

Principles:
- Microorganisms lose water through osmosis in hypertonic
solution

Examples:
- meat, vegetables, ducks eggs, fruits.
C) Pasteurisation

Method:
- Milk is heated to:
i) 63C for 30 minutes, or
ii) 72C for 15 seconds
- Then rapidly cooled to below 10C

Principles:
- Milk- preserved by pasteurisation to destroy disease-causing bacteria, ex: those that cause tuberculosis
and typhoid.

- Purpose: kill microorganisms, maintaining the nutrient content and natural flavour of the milk.

- Nutrients are not destroyed

- Unable to kill all types of bacteria.

- Pasteurised milk- needs to be stored in the refrigerator before its short shelf life- prevent
microorganisms from becoming active

Examples: milk, fruit juices, soups




D) Canning

Method:

- Use heat sterilisation method to kill microorganisms and their
- spores
- The food is packed in cans and steamed at high temperatures and
pressure to drive out all the air
- The cans containing food sealed while the food is being cooled

Principles:
- Airtight containers/vacuum- created to prevent the growth of
microorganism
- Pathogens and food-spoiling bacteria are destroyed, enzymes are
inactivated
- Canning- keeps food sterile for long period
- If not thoroughly cooked- Clostridium botulinum
- Low in quality

Examples:
- peas, baked beans, fruits, lychees

E) Refrigeration

Method:
- Common method- to prevent food spoilage
- Stored below 0C

Principle:
- Stored below 0C remain fresh for a long period of
time
- Low temp.- prevent growth of microorganisms or
germination of spores because the enzymatic reaction
have been stopped.

Example:
- meat, fish

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YOU