# SEVEN TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL

Seven Tools for identifying Quality problems and their causes for solution &
improvement :
1) Check Sheet : A fact finding tool for collection of information & data of
the measure of variations and count the number of defectives by type (data
sheet may be in the form of SPREAD SHEETS arranging data recorded in matrix
form). The purpose :
i) recording and keeping track with respect to previous lots
ii) providing a record of frequency of quality problem
iii) showing where quality problem occurred,
(for quality problem identification and analysis).

2) Stratification : A technique of arranging the collected observations /
measured data in different groups, based on segregated CAUSES, like

(i) RAW MATERIALS : a) Supplier-wise
b) Supply Batch-wise


(ii) PRODUCTION : a) Machine-wise
b) Operator-wise
c) Shift-wise or batch-wise

(ii) PROCESS : a) Operation-wise (Work-Center wise)
b) Work Center-wise
SEVEN TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL
3) Scatter Diagram : A two variables graph, plotting of measurements of
the dependable variable of the process (quality characteristic) on Y -axis against
an independent process variable like MEASUREMENTS of job/item, Cutting
Speed, Depth of Cut, etc (on X -axis), to establish the nature of variation of the
curve, showing co-relation between the two variables. The co-relation may be :
i) Positive Co-relation : increase of dependable variable (quality characteristic)
on Y-axis caused by increase of independent variable on X-axis, ie Upward.
ii) Negative Co-relation : decrease of dependable variable (quality characteristic)
on Y-axis caused by increase of independent variable on X-axis, ie Downward.
iii) Zero Co-relation : No change of dependable variable (quality characteristic)
on Y-axis caused by any variation of independent variable on X-axis, ie II to
X-axis. [Independent variable, X : cutting speed, skill, etc]

.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
.
. .
.
.
Quality Quality Quality
X X X
Positive Co-relation Negative Co-relation Zero Co-relation
SEVEN TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL
4) CONTROL CHARTS : Showing sample measurements of various lots with respect to
Central Line (CL), Upper Control Limit (UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL), and by UNTL &
USL and LNTL & LSL, Run Test, Chart Sensitivity Test, Run Sum Test, Cpk, etc.
5) Histogram : To analyze (i) How well the histogram is centered,
(ii) How wide the histogram is, and
(iii) Shape of the histogram : whether NORMAL FREQUENCY
distribution or not.
6) Pareto Chart : To determine the most frequently occurring problems / defects
according to their Causative Importance (Cause of defect / rejection / failure).
The hierarchy of the Causative factors for the Quality failure makes it easier to tackle
them in same order. So, the most frequent Causative Factor/s are identified and separated
from the less frequent Causative Factors.
Pareto Charts are created by plotting the cumulative frequency data of the relative
frequencies arranged in descending order.
1
2
3
5
4
6
7
64%
5%
3%
2%
1%
16%
9%
1,2,3,4,5,6,7 are causative factors or type of failure.
1 + 2 = 64% + 16% = 80%
3 + 4 + 5 + 6 +7 = 9% + 5% + 3% + 2% + 1% = 20%
Type/CAUSE OF REJECTION/defect
FREQUENCY OF FAILURE
dimension
frequency
SEVEN TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL
7) CAUSE & EFFECT ANALYSIS :

Steps :
i) Define problem,
ii) Select method of analysis, like
Ishikawa FISH BONE Analysis, FTA, FMEA, Brain-Storming (with
the team of representatives from engineering dept, production dept,
inspection dept, etc. and also Why Why Analysis to find root
cause),
iii) Draw Fish Bone structure with prime Arrows,
iv) Specify major categories of possible sources contributing to the
problem, eg Manpower/skill, Material, Machine/equipment, Method
/process, Measurement, Environment, Culture, etc.,
v) Identify possible causes, under each category of problem source,
vi) Establish Causal Relations of each cause
vii) Analyze for finding Root Causes,
viii) suggest corrective action in each category of problem,
ix) Test the reality in each suggested remedial step and modify the
corrective action if needed.

House Painting
Peeling
Material Method
Machine /
Equipment
Environment
Dirt in mix
Wrong type
Contaminated
Cheap quality
Too thin layer
Too thick layer
Paint on dirty (un-cleaned) surface
Wrong method
of paint application
Unlearned Brush
Used/old Brush
Brush with Bad bristle
Air Pollution
High Temperature
High Humidity
Acid Rain
Wrong Brush
FISH BONE DIAGRAM for House Painting Peeling
ASSIGNMENTS :
Make Cause & Effect Analysis with the help of Ishikawa Fish Bone
Diagram, for


1. Non-conformance of Shaft diameter in production shop.

2. Delayed flight departures.


BRAIN STORMING
It is the systematic process of idea generation, with the objective :
to uncover (open) the hidden quality issues and
to help coming up of new innovative and effective ideas,
(i) for solving quality problems / issues as well as
(ii) for quality improvement,
from the participating employees (workers, engineers, supervisors, experts, etc)
of the organization.

In Brainstorming process, an open discussion is taken up among the selected
participants / members (say, workers) under the leadership of the
Supervisor, whose role is as a FACILITATOR.

Steps & characteristics of Brainstorming process,

1. At the first step, the quality problem or quality issue is identified.
2. Each individual member of the brainstorming group can suggest an
idea, one by one, relating to solve the quality problem or for quality
improvement, related to the issue under consideration.
3. If any member has no new idea, he /she may pass.


4. No CRITICISM is permitted and members are encouraged to generate
new and innovative idea without any fear and hesitation.
5. The idea must be NEW and UNEXPOSED so far and not in use in
existing system.
6. WILD IDEAS are not neglected and not discouraged. They are
recorded, because they may trigger other good ideas from somebody
else.
7. The Facilitator writes down each and every new idea on the BLACK
BOARD for discussions on it, so that every one can see it and think
over it, and discuss on it.
8. Detail & free discussions on the proposed idea is encouraged on its
(i) effectiveness, (ii) implementation procedure, (iii) ability to
solve the problem under consideration, (iv) difficulties in
implementation, (v) all positive & negative features as well as
side-effects.
9. Any modification of the idea for the betterment and more effectiveness
is also encouraged in the discussion.
10. The PROCESS CONTINUES UNTIL no further new idea is coming up.
11. The BEST IDEA is recommended for consideration.
ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS
Long term relief from any quality problem can be achieved by eliminating the
ROOT CAUSE of the problem and not by eliminating only the symptoms of
the problem (which is temporary remedy).
When any quality problem is located or identified, immediately Root Cause
Analysis should be taken up to locate the source of the quality failure or quality
problem, ie the Root Cause leading to the quality failure, so that the Root
Cause can be rectified to stop / prevent the further occurrence of such quality
failure.
By Root Cause Analysis, locating and eliminating the Root Causes leads to the
long term relief from generating poor quality can be achieved.
Various methods / techniques of Root Cause Analysis are
(i) Why Why or 5 Why .
(ii) Ishikawa - Fish Bone Diagram.
(iii) Failure Mode & Effect Analysis (FMEA)
(iv) Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
5 WHY (Why Why) Method
It is one of the useful methods of Root Cause Analysis. Proceeding towards root cause
by consecutively asking WHY at each stage of occurrence, atleast 5 times.
In a classic example of this method used in Toyota Motors, a machine repeatedly
failed because the fuse blew.
Replacing the fuse would have been one solution obviously, however very temporary
one and in that case the failure might continue to repeat frequently, if the root
cause behind such fuse blow was not identified and rectified.
So, Toyota applied the 5 Why technique to solve it and find the permanent solution.
First WHY : Why did the Fuse blow ?
because the machine shaft got jammed and motor drew more
power and current.
Second WHY : Why did the machine shaft get jammed?
because the BEARING of the machine shaft did not have
adequate lubrication.
Third WHY : Why did the bearing have not adequate lubrication?
because the lubrication pump was not working properly.
Fourth WHY : Why the lubrication Pump did not work properly ?
because the axle of the lubrication pump was worn out.
Fifth WHY : Why was the pump axle worn out ?
because sludge (inlet lubricating oil contaminated with
particulate matter ie solid fines) seeped into the pump axle.
THIS WAS THE ROOT CAUSE.
Toyota attached a FILTER (STRAINER) at the inlet of the lubrication pump to
prevent sludge seeping into the pump axle, and obviously the problem of the
machine failure was solved instantaneously for long term.
Quality
Management
System (QMS)
&
Quality Assurance
Focus : ISO - 9001
ISO : International Standard Organization
ISO 9000 : Standard for Quality Management System & Quality
Assurance [First ISO 9000 was edited in 1993, next updating & revision
in 2000 followed by versions in 2004 and 2008] It is the standard for the
Organization having the required Quality Management System, but not the
standard of the Products.
[ ISO 9000 was equivalent to ANSI / ASQC Q 90 (US version]
ISO 9000 : Guide line for selection and use.
ISO 9001 : Models for Quality Assurance in design & development
along with Production, Installation and Services.
ISO 9002 : Models of Quality Management System for Quality
Assurance in Production, Installation and Services.
ISO 9003 : Models for Final Inspection, Auditing and Testing for
Quality Assurance.
ISO 9004 : Guide line to Managers to build their QMS for effective
Quality Management.
[ From 2000 version, ISO 9001 and ISO 9002 have been merged to
single one ISO 9001, which is applicable to all industries of Production
including manufacturing and services, with or without design and
development.
Now, the latest version of ISO-9001 is 2008.
ISO 9001 certification is a step to (a tool of) TQM.]

[ Being closely related to ASQC (American Society for Quality Control)
RAB (Registrar Accreditation Board) is the controlling authorities, for the
accreditation (approval) & registration/empanelment of the REGISTRARs for
issuing the certification of ISO-9000.]

First Party : Supplier / producer organization seeking Certificate for Compliance
with ISO 9001, for Quality Assurance and total Customer Satisfaction.
Second Party : The REGISTRARs who are CERTIFICATE issuing authorities,
after conducting appropriate assessment (through Audit by Lead Auditors)
of existing Quality Management System of the certification-seeking
organization (supplier / Producer) to assure that its Quality Management
System is indeed in compliance with appropriate standard (ISO-9001) to
positively achieve the specified quality and reliability of their products.
Third Party : The LEAD AUDITORs , the Auditors empanelled and registered with
RAB who conduct the QMS Audit on behalf of the Registrar.

Organizations which may require to have ISO 9001 certification :
a) Manufacturing Industries : Automobile, Metal, Minerals, Fabrication &
Machining, Assembly line, Process (Chemicals, Petro-chemical, Paints,
Pharmaceutical, Food, Pharmaceuticals) , Electronic goods, Consumer
goods, Leather, Furniture, etc.
b) Service Industries : Educational Service (Schools and colleges); Medical
Units (Clinic, Nursing home, Hospital); IT; Accounting & Auditing; Financial
Services; Hotels; Restaurants; 3PL & 4PL; Consultancy; Retail Outlets;
Communication Network Service; Postal; Courier; Transport (Roadway;
Railway; Airlines; Shipping); Construction; Repair & Maintenance, Security,
etc.


Organizations which may require to have ISO 9001 certification :

a) Manufacturing Industries : Automobile, Metal, Minerals, Fabrication
& Machining, Assembly line, Process (Chemicals, Petro-chemical,
Paints, Pharmaceutical, Food, Pharmaceuticals) , Electronic goods,
Consumer goods, Leather, Furniture, etc.

a) Service Industries : Educational Service (Schools and colleges);
Medical Units (Clinic, Nursing home, Hospital); IT; Accounting &
Auditing; Financial Services; Hotels; Restaurants; 3PL & 4PL;
Consultancy; Retail Outlets; Communication Network Service;
Postal; Courier; Transport (Roadway; Railway; Airlines; Shipping);
Construction; Repair & Maintenance, Security, etc.
(Registrar Accreditation Board)
R A B
Registrars
Certified Lead -
Auditors
Employ (4)
Accredits & registers/empanels
Empanels
Supplier / Producer
/ service Provider
Audit /
Inspection (5)
Compliance Report (6)
Issue ISO-9001
Certificate (7)
Consumer /
Customer
Quality Assurance of
the Products
Certification Relationship Diagram
Applies for Certification (3)
ISO 9001 Consultant
Employ(1) Consultancy(2)
Benefits of having ISO 9001 Certification

1) Improves business-COMPETITIVENESS in the market.
2) Improves the IMAGE (goodwill) and the CREDIBILITY of the
Organization in the market by Assuring the Quality of production.
3) Improves CONFIDENCE of the organization through Q M S
4) Improves PROFITABILITY of the organization by improving
economy of production by reducing :
i) Quality Rejections
ii) Scraps generation
iii) Wastes.
5) Improves PRODUCTIVITY by Efficient Utilization of input Resources
(materials, manpower, machines, utilities, infrastructure, etc) .
6) Easy and PROMPT IDENTIFICATION & RECTIFICATION OF FAULT (if
any) by pin pointing the responsibilities and accountabilities of all
employees at all levels, through systematic and thorough
documentation.
7) COMPLIANCE to Quality target and specification of product
is assured.
Steps towards getting ISO 9001 Certification
1. Take decision for ISO 9001 Certification ( decide on what business,
which unit/s or branch, etc).
2. Select and employ CONSULTANT for assistance (if required).
3. Select RAB accredited REGISTRAR (who will issue the
Certificate), at the advice of the employed Consultant.
4. Select MR (Management Representative) for the organization, with
consultation with the employed Consultant.
5. Conduct extensive Quality Awareness programme and Quality
Training programme among all the employees related in the
organization, particularly in that unit or branch of the company,
including the management & executive staff, and employees at all
levels top to bottom.
6. Select Representatives for Internal Audit of Quality
Management System, for all the branches and departments of the
organization, with consultation with the employed Consultant.
7. Prepare, establish and maintain the Documentations for QMS.
8. Train up all the personnel with the Documentations and maintenance
of the Forms & Formats.
9. Maintain (with strict discipline) such Quality Management System
(QMS).
10. Conduct INTERNAL AUDIT (including departmental audit and
over all audit).
11. Rectify all defects and non-conformances / non-compliances.
12. Apply to the selected REGISTRAR for audit & Certification and
accordingly INVITE the certified LEAD AUDITOR for audit.
13. Conduct a number of MOCK AUDIT, and each time rectify all the
non-conformances and re-audit, before the Third Party Audit.
14. Third Party Audit (TPA) is conducted by the LEAD AUDITOR.
Rectify the non-Compliances found in a Third Party Audit and invite
the Lead Auditor for re-audit.
Such Third Party audit & re-audit may continue a number of times.
10. Finally in Third Party Audit, there should not be any non-compliance
so that the Lead Auditor must be satisfied to recommend to the
accredited REGISTRAR for issuing the Certificate.
11. The accredited Registrar then issues ISO-9001 certificate.
12. The Certificate is VALID for some DEFINED PERIOD of time, after
which renewal must be applied for and there after the Third Party
Audit is again done in the same way by certified Lead Auditor before
renewed Certificate is issued.
13. Accredited Registrar has the right to inspect and RE-AUDIT
without notice at any time in the validity period of the running
Certificate and to cancel the Certificate if non-compliance is found.
DOCUMENTATIONS : for ISO-9001 Certification
1. QUALITY MANUAL : Open Document containing : (1) Quality Policy
and (2) Assured Quality Performance (Quality target), (3) overall
details for Quality Management System.
2. PROCEDURES : Confidential Document containing :
(1) Details of PROCEDURES of quality maintenance and appraisal &
(2) GUIDELINES to each individual, each work-unit and each
department, to maintain Quality System for achieving assured
quality .
This is fully document-based.
The standard specifies that the organization shall issue and maintain
the following six documented procedures:
1. Control of Documents (4.2.3)
2. Control of Records (4.2.4)
3. Internal Audits (8.2.2)
4. Control of Non-conforming Product / Service (8.3)
5. Corrective Action (8.5.2)
6. Preventive Action (8.5.3)
DOCUMENTATIONS (contd.) : for ISO-9001 Certification

3. WORK INSTRUCTIONS : Confidential Document containing :
Detail Instructions & Procedural steps (working-process &
sequential steps) to be strictly followed by each individual, for
achieving assured quality .

4. FORMS & FORMATS : Confidential Document to be filled up
carefully and accurately at every step of work and every time, (with
provision for cross-check), for record and reference , as needed to
be maintained for full-proof quality management system as well as
to PIN-POINT the RESPONSIBILITY & ACCOUNTABILITY of any fault,
failure occurred or chances to occur and thereby to get prompt
opportunity for rectification.
QUALITY
B E N C H M A R K I N G

QUALITY B E N C H M A R K I N G
# BENCHMARKING is the continuous and systematic process of
(a) Measuring / evaluating the BEST PRACTICES for achieving high Quality /
performance wrt (i) PRODUCTS, (ii) Business Process, (iii) Working Procedure , of
the TARGET ORGANIZATIONS which are recognized as industry-LEADERS, and
(b) Identifying the GAPS between such BEST PRACTICES & EXISTING
PRACTICES in the own business,
(c) (based on that,) Establishing the rational performance GOALS in ADOPTING
SUCH BEST PRACTICES, in the concerned business.

for improving the business performance CONTINUOUSLY by learning
from the business leaders,

[ It is the on-going practice of measurement of relative performance of the
self against industry leaders, in the key process areas.
It is to search for the best practices that will lead to superior performance.]

# TARGET ORGANIZATION in Benchmarking, can be any of the
followings :
1. World class BUSINESS LEADER of any industry.
2. BUSINESS LEADER of any industry in the country.
3. BUSINESS LEADER in the same industry.
4. POTENTIAL COMPETITORS in the same industry.
5. INTERNALLY (improving with respect to present self performance
assessment)
AREAS OF BENCHMARKING
1. COMPETITIVE BENCHMARKING on
i) Products : Pricing, features & Quality (Performance characteristics
and other quality characteristics)
ii) Process & Technology
iii) Work-procedure in Production, Packing, Quality Control, Logistics
& Supply Chain, Maintenance, etc.
iv Business Performance
v) Customer Service

2. WORKING-PROCESS BENCHMARKING
It includes best practices and key business process or working
processes like Distribution, Order-entry, Procurement, Order-
processing, Training & Development, etc.

3. STRATEGIC BENCHMARKING
It includes the Order Winning Strategy adopted by the successful
competitors to have their competitive advantage over the others.
Benchmarking Steps :
1) Planning : i) Identify the NEED and decide the AREA of benchmarking.
ii) Identify the target (best-in-class) organization ie FOCUS
organization.
iii) Develop a PROJECT PLAN for benchmarking and determine
the SCOPE & OBJECTIVES
2) Analysis : iv) Determine DATA COLLECTION METHOD.
v) Collect DATA on focus organizations as well as own
organization.
vi) Compare and analyze DATA to determine the current
PERFORMANCE GAPS, and develop recommendations.
3) Integration : vii) Project the FUTURE performance level.
viii) Communicate the BENCHMARK FINDINGS to gain
ACCEPTANCE from all relevant departments and from
all levels.
4) Action : ix) Establish FUNCTIONAL GOALS.
x) Develop ACTION PLAN to adopt best practices,
procedure and business process to attain the benchmark-
level (superior) of performance
xi) IMPLEMENT that specific action plan
xii) MONITOR the progress and the improvement.
5) Recalibration : xii) Continuously RECALIBRATE (update) Benchmarking.

MALCOLM BALDRIGE National Quality Award (MBNQA)

[It is is named after the quality-management champion Malcolm Baldridge (1922-87) who was
the SECRETARY OF COMMERCE (1981-87) in Ronald Reagan administration.
It is managed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and conferred by the
American Society For Quality.]
The prestigious quality award Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, is being given
annually from 1987, to one or two Organizations (both private and public), for the best
performance excellence in the area of Total Quality Management , recognizing U.S.
organizations, for quality in the field of :
1) BUSINESS SECTOR :
Manufacturing,
Services, and
Small business [with employee number less than 500.]
2) HEALTH CARE SECTOR,
3) EDUCATION SECTOR, and
4) NON-PROFIT SECTORS.
OBJECTIVE OF THE MBN QUALITY AWARD :
(i) To ENCOURAGE / STIMULATE business companies to improve their quality level.
(ii) To ESTABLISH USEFUL CRITERIA for the business companies for evaluating their
own individual quality improvement effort.
(iii) To SET the Quality BENCHMARK [QUALITY of the successful organization]
(ideal/example in the industry as Industry Leader), for helping OTHER
organizations to LEARN how to manage & improve quality by disseminating
information about the Award Winning Program.
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award

(iv) Award Winner organizations become confident & competent and the MODEL or
Benchmark for other organizations to emulate in establishing their Total Quality Management
program. They become the LEADERS OF QUALITY. [eg Motorola, Xerox, Cadillac,
Milliken, IBM, Federal Express, etc]
# as the Baseline for measuring the PERFORMANCE
EXCELLENCE for TQM :
(1) Leadership :The organizations leadership system and senior leaders
personal leadership
(2) Strategic Planning :How the organization sets strategic directions and how
it develops the critical strategies and action plans
(3) Customers and Market Focus: How the company determines the
requirements and expectations of customers and markets
(4) Human Resources : How the company enables employees to develop and
utilize their full potential, aligned with the companys objectives
(5) Information Management, Knowledge Management and Measurement &
Analysis & : The management and effectiveness of use of information and
data to support key company processes and action plans, and the companys
performance management system
(6) Process Management : How key processes are designed, implemented,
managed, and improved
(7) Business Result : The organizations performance and improvement in key
business areas like :

(a) Customer satisfaction, (b) Product & Services,
(c) Financial & Market Share (d) Organizational effectiveness,
(e) Governance & Social responsibility.
SEVEN CRITERIA
Points allotted for Assessment in MBNQA
Criteria Points
1. Leadership 100
2. Information & Analysis 60
3. Strategic Quality Planning 90
4. Human Resource Utilization 150
5. Quality Assurance 150
6. Quality Performance/Result 150
7. Customer Satisfaction 300
T O T A L 1000


Who can use MBNQA :
Whether the organization is,
1. small or large business,
2. involved in service or manufacturing,
3. government or nonprofit making or private organizations, and
4. has one office or multiple offices/sites inside the country or across the
globe.
QUALITY CIRCLE
Quality Circles were first seen in the United States in the 1950s
Quality Circles were developed by Dr. Kaoru ISHIKAWA in Japan in the 1960s
Quality Circles were re-exported to the US in the early 1970s
1980s brought Total Quality Management and a reduction in the use of Quality
Circles
Quality Circles can be a very useful tool if implemented successfully.

What is a Quality Circle?
QUALITY CIRCLE is the VOLUNTARY groups of employees, who (i) are working
on similar tasks or sharing the same area of responsibility and (ii) agree to
meet on a regular basis with the objective ( purpose) :
(1) to identify & solve all the QUALITY PROBLEMS and ISSUES
related to the same or related work-area, and
(2) to take necessary steps for continuous improvement.
# Quality Circle operates on the philosophy of :
(i) employees VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION with
(ii) employees EMPOWERMENT in decision-making and problem-solving
with the objective of improving the quality.
# Benefits of Quality circle : (1) boosts employee Morale & self esteem and
improve Team Spirit (2) provides opportunities to the employees to
proceed towards the higher level of the organization through their
contribution (3) improves quality through identifying and solving the
quality problem and taking measure for continuous improvement.
QUALITY CIRCLE
# Ten Essential Characteristics of Quality Circle :
1. Membership is purely VOLUNTARY (without compulsion).
2. Membership is drawn from workers/employees doing similar job or
working in same work-area or sharing with same area of responsibilities.
3. The size of quality circle should be appropriate (neither large nor small).
4. Leader of the Circle should be selected from and by the Members of the
Circle or some times may be the Supervisor, but not top executives.
5. Managements interest & full support (mental, fund, time, infrastructural,
etc) towards the functioning of Quality Circle.

6. Extensive TRAINING of the operator-members on Quality Issues, Solving
of Quality Problems and Continuous improvement
7. Quality Circles need EMPOWERMENT for decision making
8. Members need to have the Recognition, appreciation and rewards from
top Management for the functioning & performance of the Quality Circle.

9. Frequent / regular meetings of Q. Circle Team is required to (i) identify
the Quality Problems, (ii) to take decision on solving the problems (by
making Consensus of the Quality Circle team), (iii) implementing the
solutions, (iv) to take action for continuous improvement and (v) all
monitoring & follow-up actions.
10. Favourable INDUSTRIAL RELATION in the organization
# S I Z E of the Quality Circle
The Size of Quality Circle should usually be between 4 to 12 members but
they can be upto a maximum of fifteen (15). Ideal size is 8 to 10 .
[Larger size of Quality Circle, tend to lose their DYNAMISM , while
Smaller size of Quality Circle, often lose their CREATIVE CAPACITY.]
QUALITY CIRCLE
#Common Causes of failure of Quality Circle implementation

1. Inappropriate SIZE of Quality Circle (4 to 12) (ideally 8, 9 or 10)
2. Selection of Members from Wrong (other) working areas (not doing
similar work or not from same work area)
3. Members are not truly Voluntary, but forced /ordered to be member
4. Wrong Selection of the Leader of Quality-Circle (if not from and
among the members of the Circle, or if top official / management
person)
5. Inadequate Training of Members
6. Lack of Management Interest and support
7. Not really empowering Quality Circles to make relevant decisions.
8. Infrequent (inadequate number of) Quality Circle MEETING (should
be atleast once in a month).
9. Quality Circles functioning & performance not recognized or
appreciated or rewarded by the management.
10. Unfavorable INDUSTRIAL RELATION with trade unions.
TOTAL PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE (TPM)
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a team-oriented and
Participation - based Equipment-maintenance program.


It is a combination of : (1) Preventive & Predictive Maintenance with
(2) Autonomous (participative) Maintenance.

It emphasizes on Equipment Maintenance with philosophy of :
(i) Operators involvement with Team work,
(ii) Operators feeling of OWNERSHIP of Equipment & its Performance,
(iii) Preventive & Predictive Maintenance.


OBJ ECTIVE : To improve PRODUCTIVITY by
1) maintaining improved product QUALITY and product YIELD through
improving WORKING CONDITION of machine, so that COST OF
DEFECTIVES comes down;
2) reducing equipment MAINTENANCE COST through operators self
maintenance (Autonomous Maintenance);
3) increasing PRODUCTION VOLUME through
(i) decreasing machine BREAKDOWN TIME
ie increasing EQUIPMENT AVAILABILITY and
(ii) increasing the PROCESSING-SPEED or reducing the chance of
reduction of the processing-speed of the machine
Measurement of EFFECTIVENESS of TPM
TPM helps to improve (i) Equipment Availability, (ii) Performance Efficiency
and (iii) Quality yield of output.

THREE MEASURABLES in O E E
(OVERALL EQUIPMENT EFFECTIVENESS)
Equipment Availability (Time availability)
Equipment Performance (Speed of production)
Quality Rate (Quality performance)

which consider FIVE BIG Losses
1. Equipment Downtime Loss (Breakdowns)
2. Quality Rejections Loss (Scrap Rate)
3. Reduced equipment-speed Loss
4. Set-up time Loss (Engineering Adjustment)
5. Start-up loss

TPM combines
(i) the American practice of Preventive and Predictive Maintenance
(ii) with the Japanese concepts of autonomous Maintenance
(Total quality control and total employee involvement, promoting
operators maintenance through day-to-day monitoring activities).

[TPM ensures Rapid and Continuous Improvement of Productivity in
manufacturing industries by eliminating the losses like
1. Equipment Breakdown Losses (equipment Idle Time),
2. Manufacturing Speed Losses (due to inefficiency of equipment), and
3. Quality Defectives Losses (due to Poor Quality Output).


TPM eliminate the RISK of :
1. Equipment Breakdowns, creating interruption in production
2. Quality Defects, generated from faulty / defective equipment
3. Failure of On-time delivery
4. Equipment Related Productivity Losses
5. Generation of Manufacturing Losses in Wastes, Scraps, etc)]
EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE MEASURES
Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)
Overall Equipment Effectiveness,
OEE = Equip. Availability x Performance Efficiency x Quality Rate
OEE = E A x P E x Q R
Equipment Availability = Net Equip. Operating Time x 100%
Total Workable Time
[ Net Equip. Operating Time = Total Workable Time Total Time Loss ]
Performance Efficiency = Design Cycle Time x Total items Run x 100%
Net Equip. Operating Time
[Total items Run is the Total no. of output produced including REJECTS]

Quality Rate (Quality Yield) = Total items Run Total Defects x 100%
Total items Run


[ Typical example of very good OEE = 87% x 90% x 96% = 75%]

Example (OEE)
One Metal Processing plant has the present performance data for one week of
operation, as follow. Analyze the OEE and advise.
Operating schedule = 120 hrs/week Non-operation time = 250 min/week
Maintenance downtime = 500 min/week
Changeover downtime = 4140 min/week
Ideal production rate = 9.2 pieces/min
Total output = 15,906 pieces/week Rejected pieces = 558 per week

OEE =EA x PE x QR
Design Cycle Time= 1/ IDEAL Prodn rate = (1/9.2) min/piece
Total Workable time = (120 hrs)(60 min/hr) = 7200 min
Total time loss = (250 + 500 + 4140) minutes = 4890 minutes
Net Equip. Operating time = 7200 4890 = 2,310 min
EA = Net Equip. Operating time Total Workable time
EA = 2310 7200 = 0.32 :: Too low, special attention on considerable
improvement by TPM is recommended
PE = (Design cycle time x Total output) (Net Equip. Operating time)
PE = [(1/9.2)min/ piece x (15,906)] (2,310 min)
= [(0.109)(15,906)] 2,310 = 0.75 :: Low, improvement is required
QR = (Total output rejects) Total output
= (15,906 558) 15,906 = 0.96 :: OK, but slight improvement is possible
OEE = EA x PE x QR = (0.32)x(0.75)x(0.96) = 0.23 = 23% => It is too low.
Ideally OEE should be 75%
RELIABILITY


BATH-TUB CURVE :
The PROBABILITY OF FAILURE ie UN-RELIABILITY of a product generally
follow a typical Hazard-Curve / FAILURE CURVE called BATH-TUB
CURVE. The typical Hazard-Curve showing the variation of Hazard Rate or
FAILURE RATE (failures per time) of the product with respect to Time
variation, along PRODUCTS LIFE, is a smooth curve in the shape of a Bath-
Tub, and because of its shape such curve is called Bath- Tub Curve.
Failure Rate
Time
Infant Failure zone Service Failure zone
Wear-out
Failure zone
Infant Mortality /
U S E F U L L I F E
Wear-out Life
Break-in Period
Failure Rate is
minimum and steady
Failure Rate is max at
beginning & reduces
rapidly with time
Failure Rate increases
rapidly with time & is
max at end

(I) Bath-Tub Curve has three (3)clear Failure Zones (i) Infant Failure
Zone, (ii) Service Failure Zone, and (iii) Wear-out Failure Zone.
(II) Bath-Tub Curve indicates that the PRODUCT LIFE is divided into two
major sectors (i) USEFUL LIFE, and (ii) WEAR-OUT LIFE.
[Useful Life includes Infant Failure Zone & Service Failure Zone.]

# Infant Failure Zone (Infant Mortality / Break- in Period) : is short initial
period of product life, during which very high Early Failure-rate of the product
takes place due to the DEFECTS in
(i) Product Design (Inherent DESIGN-Weakness of the part / section),
(iii) Assembly (eg alignment, fitting, etc)
(iv) Quality of material of construction,
(v) Workmanship,
(vi) Surface preparation / Lining (eg insulation, surface hardening ,surface
finish, etc), and due to
(vii) Improper Operation (eg application of EXCESS LOAD; beyond
specified operating condition like dust, temperature, humidity,
pressure, etc)

In this zone, Failure Rate decreases rapidly with Time to reach a steady level.

# Service Failure Zone : Failure Rate or Hazard Rate becomes (i) steady &
LOWEST, (ii) failures are very OCCASIONAL & Random, (iii) fairly EVENLY
distributed, (iv) failure density is STEADY and EXPONENTIAL in nature
(Failure Rate is constant and parallel to Time-axis) leading to Constant and
low Failure Rate curve.
# Wear-out Failure Zone : The Failure Rate increases RAPIDLY due to
ageing, wear & tear, fatigue and corrosion, etc., (specially after specified LIFE)
RELIBILITY : of the product is the PROBABILITY that the product will
perform as per the SPECIFIED (defined) QUALITY
- during its SPECIFIED LIFE TIME
- under SPECIFIED OPERATING & ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITION.
Reliability is the Probability of success in performance of the goods /
Product .
In Reliability testing / FAILURE TEST :
1) Reliability, R = Number of survivors at the end of a given time
Total population of product at the beginning

2) Failure Density, f
d
= Number of failure during given time interval
Total population of product at the beginning

3) Hazard Rate, Z = Number of failure during particular unit interval
Average population during the interval

4) Failure Rate, : Number of Failure of the product per unit time (say, so
many failures per hour).
5) Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) : it is the mean of the time
gaps between two consecutive failures of the product under operation.
MTBF indicates MEAN Time gap between n th. failure and (n+1)th. failure.


6) Mean Time To Failure,
where, N = No. of specimen (sample size),
t
i
= Time of failure for i th specimen
where, i = 1 to N


7) RELIABILITY of an item during the particular operating period t,

MTTF = ( t
i
) N
MTTF = 1
R
t
= e
.t
For Constant Hazard Rate
[Euler's constant or Napier's constant,
e = 2 + 1/2 + 1/(2 3) + 1/(2 3 4) + 1/(2 3
4 5) +
e = 2.71828 182846]
Example-1 :
Failure Test was conducted for electric bulbs on a sample of size of 1000 with
total duration of test of 10 days. The result Data of such failure test is given
below. Find at the end of each unit time-period (i) Failure density,
(ii) Hazard Rate, (iii) Reliability and also calculate (iv) Mean Hazard Rate,
.
Time (t)
day
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No. of
failures (f)
0 210 143 117 96 77 65 90 135 50 17
Time
(t) days
No. of
failures (f
t
)
Cumulative
failures (F
t
)
No. of
Survivors
S
t
( =N F
t
)
Failure
Density fd
(= f
t
/ N)
Hazard
Rate Z
t
( =f
t

/Mean of S
t

& S
t-1
)
Reliability
R
t
(= S
t
/N)
0 0 0 1000 0 0 1.000
1 210 210 790 0.210 0.235 0.790
2 143 353 647 0.143 0.199 0.647
3 117 470 530 0.117 0.199 0.530
4 96 566 434 0.096 0.199 0.434
5 77 643 357 0.077 0.199 0.357
6 65 708 292 0.065 0.200 0.292
7 90 798 202 0.090 0.364 0.202
8 135 933 67 0.135 1.0037 0.067
9 50 983 17 0.050 1.190 0.017
10 17 1000 0 0.017 2.000 0.000
fd1 = 210 / 1000 = 0.210 Total : 5.785
Z1 = 210 (1000+790) / 2 = 210/895 = 0.235 Z2 = 143 (790+647) / 2 = 0.199
Rt
1
= 790 / 1000 = 0.790
Mean Hazard Rate, h = 5.785 10 = 0.5785 = 57.85%
Answer-1 :
N = 1000
Example-2 :
Determine MTTF for a mission time of 1000 hours life, if the Test of Failure data on
a sample of 10 such items indicates the time to fail as shown below. Find also
the Reliability of the item for the specified life of 1000 Hours



Item No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time to
Fail (Hrs)
807 820 810 875 900 837 850 790 866 815
Example-3 :
If the failure rate of an item is 0.003 failures / hour, determine the Mean
Time To Failure and reliability of the product for 100 hours life.

Example-3 :
If the failure rate of an item is 0.003 failures /
hour, determine the Mean Time To Failure and
reliability of the product for 100 hours life.


Example-4 :
What is the Reliability of a product item for an
operating period of 200 hours, if the Failure
Test shows a failure rate of 0.4 x 10
5
failures
/ hour.
If originally 5000 such items were under this
test, how many items failed in 200 hours ?