MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (GENERAL)

Solution polymerization: In this method a monomer is dissolved in an inert

solvent that contains an initiator or catalyst. During this process the
solvent absorbs the heat from the exothermic polymerization reaction
which in turn controls the rate of the reaction. The solvent used also
dissolves the polymer formed.
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (GENERAL)
Suspension Polymerization: This form of polymerization is carried out
within a liquid phase (normally water) in which neither the monomer nor
the polymer are soluble. The monomer droplets are suspended within
the liquid and polymerize once the initiator molecule comes in contact
with them. Mechanical agitation is normally used to keep the
suspension even. Polymers formed using this process are normally
solid granules that can be dried and separated.
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (GENERAL)
Emulsion Polymerization: This process of polymerization is quite similar to
suspension polymerization apart from the fact that regular mixing isnt
required. And that the aqueous phase is normally there with the end
product; which is basically a stable dispersion (emulsion) of polymer
microparticles, also known as latex.
CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION
Condensation polymers are any kind of polymers that are formed via a
condensation reaction which involves the release of a small molecule
such as water upon the joining of two monomers.
This is different from addition polymerization which requires unsaturated
monomers and doesnt give off any molecules during the reactions.
Polyesters and polyamides are classes of polymers formed by this process.
An example of Nylon, a polyamide, is given below:
PHENOLIC RESINS
Phenolic resins are heat-cured polymers that form upon the condensation
reaction between an aldehyde and an alcohol. Specifically formaldehyde
and phenol.
There are two types of Phenolic resins:
- One step (Resols): The reaction is base catalyzed in this case. And the
resulting macromolecules have the reactive methylol (-CH2OH) attached
to the phenol rings that allows for cross-linking upon heating. The end
product is thermoset.
- Two Step (Novolacs): This reaction, in turn, is acid catalyzed. The
resulting prepolymers are still in a thermoplastic stage and need to be
cross-linked to be usable. To accomplish this a hardening agent is
added to the mixture and then heated.
Bakelite, worlds first synthetic plastic, is a phenolic resin and is known
for its hardness and thermal resistivity.
AMINO RESINS
Amino resins are thermosetting resins formed through the
copolymerization of amides and aldehydes. They are used as adhesives
and as coatings for finished products.
There are two main types of Amino resins:
- Urea resin: It is formed through the condensation reaction between
urea and formaldehyde. It is known for its high tensile strength and
impact resistance and is used in agriculture, decorative pieces and
textile industry. It is also used as an adhesive.
- Melamine resin: This resin constitutes of a melamine (an amino
organic base) and formaldehyde. It is very weather-resistant and hard
and thus finds widespread use in the kitchenware, tableware and toys
industry. This resin can also link up with other resins and form surface
coatings.
POLYESTER RESINS
Polyester resin is an unsaturated, thermosetting resin formed by the
reaction of a dibasic organic acid and a polyhydric alcohol. Maleic acid
and ethylene glycol are commonly used reactants that react to give
ester linkages.
This unsaturation of polyester resins means that they can further
polymerize under the right conditions, the conditions being:
- Introduction of Styrene (phenyl ethene) that lowers the viscosity of the
resin and makes it flow.
- And an agent (incorrectly called a catalyst) that freely disintegrates
into free radicals that attack the unsaturated sites. Benzyl peroxide is
one such agent.
The single most extensive use of this resin is Glass reinforced plastics
(GRPs) or fiber-glass, in which the resin is used to bind layers of glass
fiber into a tough laminate.
ALKYD RESINS
Alkyds are polyester resins that form due to the condensation reaction
between a fatty acid (a polybasic acid) and a polyhydric alcohol. A
common combination is oleic acid and glycerol.
Another method for production involves the esterification and subsequent
deesterificaiton of a glyceride oil into a monoglyceride in the presence
of glycerol. The monoglyceride when reacted with a dibasic carboxylic
acid (like phthalic acid), gives an alkyd resins with fatty acid side
chains.
Alkyd resins are liquids and are an integral portion of many products like
paints, varnishes and enamel finishes. The resin in these products acts
as a binder, holding other ingredients together and giving them the
ability to bond to many surfaces.
POLYCARBONATES
Polycarbonates are like polyesters apart from the fact that the carbonyl
group (C=O) involved in their formation is bonded to two separate O-R-
groups.
Lexan is the trade name for the only widely produced polycarbonate. It is
known for its exceptionally high impact resistance and thus finds use in
bulletproof glass, safety goggles, helmets, CDs, fighter-jet cockpit
canopies etc.
Despite this it is thermoplastic and flows freely above 155C. It is also very
weak in terms of scratch resistance.
EPOXY RESINS
Epoxy resins consist of two components; a prepolymer and a curing agent.
Bisphenol A and epicholorohydrin are two widely used prepolymer
components. This prepolymer, when the need arises, can be cured
through the likes of tertiary amines (R
3
N) to induce cross linking.
As seen in the diagram each prepolymer chain has numerous, regularly
spaced secondary OH groups in the center and each end has
unreacted epoxide rings. During curing these rings open and combine
with OH groups of other chains to give a vast three-dimensional tangle
that has enormous strength and heat and chemical resistance.
The single most important use of epoxy resins is as structural adhesives.
POLYAMIDES
These are the best known class of condensation polymers thanks to the
thermoplastic, polyamide Nylon which is formed by the
copolymarization of a diamine and a dibasic carboxylic acid.
Nylon 66 for instance is formed by the reaction of adipic acid with
hexamethylenediamine at 280C. It is molten at this stage but hardens
immediately upon contact with air.
Nylon is extremely tough and has excellent abrasion resistivity. These
properties allow it to be used in parachutes, rock-climbing ropes and
even fabrics.
POLYSULFONES
Polysulfones are a family of thermoplastic polymers. These polymers are
known for their extreme toughness and thermal and chemical stability.
The telling feature of polysulfone, as depicted by the name, is the presence
of a sulfone group (R-SO
2
-R) subunit.
A typical polysulfone is produced by the reaction of bisphenol A with bis(4-
chlorophenyl)sulfone in the presence of sodium carbonate. This
condensation reaction along with the elimination of water also releases
sodium chloride.
Due to high cost of raw materials and processing. Polysulfones are
reserved for specialty applications like astronaut visors & hemodialysis
membranes.